Self-Balancing, Memory Efficient, Dynamic Metric Space Data Maintenance, for Rapid Multi-Kernel Estimation

Abstract: We present a dynamic self-balancing octree data structure that enables efficient neighborhood maintenance in evolving metric spaces, a key challenge in modern machine learning systems. Many learning and generative models operate as dynamical systems whose representations evolve during training, requiring fast, adaptive spatial organization. Our two-parameter octree supports logarithmic-time updates and queries, eliminating the need for costly full rebuilds as data distributions shift. We demonstrate its effectiveness in four areas: (1) accelerating Stein variational gradient descent by supporting more particles with lower overhead; (2) enabling real-time, incremental KNN classification with logarithmic complexity; (3) facilitating efficient, dynamic indexing and retrieval for retrieval-augmented generation; and (4) improving sample efficiency by jointly optimizing input and latent spaces. Across all applications, our approach yields exponential speedups while preserving accuracy, particularly in high-dimensional spaces where maintaining adaptive spatial structure is critical.