Satellite Cybersecurity Across Orbital Altitudes: Analyzing Ground-Based Threats to LEO, MEO, and GEO

Abstract: The rapid proliferation of satellite constellations, particularly in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), has fundamentally altered the global space infrastructure, shifting the risk landscape from purely kinetic collisions to complex cyber-physical threats. While traditional safety frameworks focus on debris mitigation, ground-based adversaries increasingly exploit radio-frequency links, supply chain vulnerabilities, and software update pathways to degrade space assets. This paper presents a comparative analysis of satellite cybersecurity across LEO, Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) regimes. By synthesizing data from 60 publicly documented security incidents with key vulnerability proxies--including Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TT&C) anomalies, encryption weaknesses, and environmental stressors--we characterize how orbital altitude dictates attack feasibility and impact. Our evaluation reveals distinct threat profiles: GEO systems are predominantly targeted via high-frequency uplink exposure, whereas LEO constellations face unique risks stemming from limited power budgets, hardware constraints, and susceptibility to thermal and radiation-induced faults. We further bridge the gap between security and sustainability, arguing that unmitigated cyber vulnerabilities accelerate hardware obsolescence and debris accumulation, undermining efforts toward carbon-neutral space operations. The results demonstrate that weak encryption and command path irregularities are the most consistent predictors of adversarial success across all orbits.