Impedance-spectrum-aware optimization using realistic cell impedance

Develop an impedance-spectrum-aware objective for impedance-aware optimized pulse patterns that models the frequency- and state-of-charge-dependent impedance of real battery cells rather than a purely ohmic internal resistance.

Background

The paper models each cell's internal impedance as a purely ohmic resistance. Real battery-cell impedance varies with frequency and state of charge, potentially altering the relationship between switching patterns, source impedance, and current harmonics.

The authors state that extending the optimization objective to incorporate an impedance spectrum is an unresolved future extension. The same closed-form evaluation framework is described as suitable for formulating this extension.

References

The robustness analysis addresses the first simplification in part---the advantage survives $\pm$\SI{30}{\percent} resistance mismatch---but an impedance-spectrum-aware objective, immediately formulable with the same machinery, remains an extension for future work.

— Impedance-Aware Optimized Pulse Patterns for Reconfigurable Battery Systems  (2609.16828 - Estaller et al., 15 Sep 2026) in Section "Limitations" of Section 6, Discussion and Conclusion