HASEL Electrohydraulic Actuators

• HASEL actuators are soft electrohydraulic transducers that combine dielectric fluid hydraulics with high-field electrostatic actuation to achieve precise mechanical motion.
• They generate Maxwell pressure in a polymer pouch filled with dielectric liquid, enabling high strain, rapid response, and intrinsic self-healing properties.
• Integrated self-sensing and advanced fabrication techniques facilitate accurate feedback control and durability for applications in soft robotics, adaptive optics, and wearable devices.

Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic (HASEL) actuators are a family of soft electrohydraulic transducers that combine the advantages of dielectric fluid hydraulics and high-field electrostatic actuation. They exhibit high strain, fast response, strong compliance, and intrinsic self-healing capabilities, making them highly attractive for applications in soft robotics, adaptive optics, wearable devices, and haptic systems. Central to their operation is the principle that externally applied electric fields generate Maxwell pressure, which directly deforms an inextensible shell filled with a dielectric liquid, producing controllable mechanical motion (Wissman et al., 2021, Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Cisneros et al., 19 Feb 2024).

1. Physical Principles and Modeling

The actuation mechanism relies on the interaction between high-voltage Maxwell pressure and a constrained, incompressible dielectric liquid. Upon application of voltage $V$ across two compliant electrodes separated by a polymer shell with local thickness $d$, the resulting electric field $E = V/d$ generates a normal pressure on the electrodes: $$p_{\text{elec}} = \frac{1}{2}\varepsilon_0\varepsilon_r E^2 = \frac{1}{2}\varepsilon_0\varepsilon_r \left(\frac{V}{d}\right)^2,$$ where $\varepsilon_0$ is the vacuum permittivity and $\varepsilon_r$ is the relative permittivity of the dielectric fluid or shell (Wissman et al., 2021, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).

This pressure causes the electrodes and shell to locally zip together under the high-field region, hydraulically displacing fluid to adjacent regions of the pouch, amplifying the small field-induced contraction into a sizeable, bulk geometric deformation. The spatial change in shell shape can be harnessed for translational contraction, curling, or other modes (e.g., in Peano-HASEL and curling-HASEL architectures) (Cisneros et al., 19 Feb 2024).

A system-level description exploits volume conservation and mechanical work balance between electrostatic pressure and shell elasticity. For a rectangular pouch of area $A_e$ and initial shell height $h_0$, conservation yields: $A_e(-\Delta d) + \Delta A_{ex} h_0 = 0,$ where $\Delta d$ is the reduction in local film spacing beneath the electrodes, compensated by a bulge or extension elsewhere (Wissman et al., 2021).

Dynamic and nonlinear system models, including port-Hamiltonian frameworks, reflect the interplay among the electrical (capacitance, charge, inductance), fluidic (volume conservation), and mechanical (spring, inertia, damping) domains. For instance, the modular PH model for curling HASELs comprises a parallel interconnection of basic electrical and mechanical subsystems, characterized by nonlinear state and energy functions and experimentally identified via structured fitting to step-response data (Cisneros et al., 19 Feb 2024).

2. Materials, Architectures, and Fabrication

HASEL actuators consist of three essential components: an inextensible, thin polymer shell, a dielectric liquid, and flexible electrodes.

• Polymer Shells: Polypropylene (PP, 80 μm), Mylar/BOPET (15 μm), or polyimide (PI, 25–50 μm) are widely used. These materials offer high dielectric strength (breakdown fields up to 200 MV/m) and low loss (Wissman et al., 2021, Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Dielectric Liquid: Typically, silicone oil (relative permittivity 2–3, high dielectric strength, low viscosity, self-healing properties) or soybean oil is used. Volumes per pouch typically range from 20 μL to several mL (Wissman et al., 2021, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Electrodes: Conductive layers (carbon ink, silver paint, or copper foil) are applied to outer or inner pouch surfaces, patterned based on desired actuation geometry. Electrodes typically withstand up to 20 kV, with coverage optimized to balance zipping action and force output (Wissman et al., 2021, Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Bonding and Sealing: Perimeter heat sealing (via laser engraver or thermal bonding at specified temperatures, e.g., 120–220°C) creates leak-tight, robust shells (Wissman et al., 2021, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Self-Healing: Micro-breakdowns cause local shell zipping and loss of voltage hold but can be repaired via localized heating, restoring dielectric strength without catastrophic failure (Wissman et al., 2021).

Automated fabrication can include stencil printing of electrodes, laser cutting of film, and custom jigs for precise heat sealing and filling (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Wissman et al., 2021).

3. Self-Sensing and Feedback Control

A major innovation in HASEL technology is capacitive self-sensing, where the actuator's own deformation-induced capacitance changes are exploited for direct position estimation. This eliminates the need for external position or force sensors and enables proprioceptive closed-loop control in multi-DoF soft robotic systems (Ly et al., 2020, Christoph et al., 5 Apr 2024, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).

• Measurement Techniques: Low-voltage (LV) AC signals (typically 1–2 kHz, 1–12 Vpp) are superimposed onto isolated sensing electrodes or directly on the non-HV side of the actuator. The resulting displacement-correlated current or voltage is measured and processed (AC demodulation, RMS analysis, impedance extraction) to reconstruct actuator displacement (Ly et al., 2020, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).
• Decoupling: Separate electrode pairs for actuation (HV) and sensing (LV) are physically and electrically isolated on distinct pouch regions (e.g., non-zipping LV electrodes at the pouch edge), reducing parasitic coupling and permitting high-bandwidth operation (Christoph et al., 5 Apr 2024, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).
• Performance: Displacement estimation errors are reported below 4% up to 1 Hz, with extended bandwidth to 20 Hz and sub-millimeter resolution using optimized electrode geometry and filtering. Phase lag for sensing is <$4^{\circ}$ at 20 Hz (Ly et al., 2020, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).
• Feedback Control: Embedded PID or more advanced controllers enable trajectory tracking, disturbance rejection, and compliance tuning. Self-sensed tendon displacement errors for antagonist-joint robotic shoulders show RMSE of 3–4.2 mm (vs. 2.8 mm with external motion capture) (Christoph et al., 5 Apr 2024).

4. Performance Metrics and Electrical Driving

HASEL actuators demonstrate favorable actuation thresholds, force density, stroke, dynamic response, and durability compared to conventional soft actuators.

• Actuation Threshold: Typical onset at 8–16 kV for 50–80 μm films; thicker shells allow higher voltages but reduce Maxwell pressure scaling ($p_{\rm elec} \propto 1/d^2$) (Wissman et al., 2021, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Contractile Stroke: Free contraction up to 18 mm (≈30% strain) per 8-pouch stack (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Blocking Force: 0.1 N per 40×20 mm pouch, with measured forces of 16.3 N at 8 kV for an eight-pouch pack (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Dynamic Bandwidth: >100 Hz open-loop (bare actuator), 3.2 Hz smooth antagonistic motion with integrated clutches, and accurate self-sensing to 20 Hz (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).
• Efficiency and Energy Density: Mechanical–electrical efficiency of 10–20% (actuator-only), specific power ≈50 W/kg, energy density up to 2 J/kg per cycle (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Wissman et al., 2021).
• AC Versus DC Driving: DC voltage operation causes voltage and displacement drift due to leakage. AC (square-wave) driving stabilizes displacement by maintaining charge, but introduces oscillations; addition of series elastic elements filters out ripple, yielding smooth, stable output (Xiong et al., 25 Jan 2024, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Durability: >5 million actuation cycles without significant degradation, effective self-healing (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Response Time: Measured $t_{90}$ for output displacement ≈ 53 ms (open-loop, 3–6 kV step) (Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).

5. Advanced Architectures and Integration

HASEL actuators are compatible with a wide array of soft actuation and robotic schemes, including antagonistic musculoskeletal joints, adaptive optics, and haptic feedback systems.

• Antagonistic Joints: Full bidirectional actuation is achieved by combining HASELs with electrostatic clutches in an orchestrated four-phase drive. This enables continuous, smooth muscle-like motion across the complete range without slack or loss of control authority (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Adaptive Optics: Integration with PDMS lenses enables voltage-driven, variable-focus optics with observable focal length modulation (Wissman et al., 2021).
• Haptic Devices: Arrays of stacked HASELs produce kinesthetic feedback (2–5 N) and vibrotactile signals at up to 20 Hz, with high control resolution and fast closed-loop response (<50 ms), enabling teleoperation and user-in-the-loop feedback (Li et al., 27 Nov 2024).
• Wearable and Untethered Systems: Miniaturized, low-power HV and sensing electronics, embedded in portable form factors, allow direct integration into exoskeletons, soft wearables, and prosthetic devices. Quasi-simultaneous multichannel self-sensing has been demonstrated for VR joint tracking with <5° angular error (Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024).

6. Limitations, Challenges, and Prospects

Key constraints and research challenges in HASEL systems include:

• High Voltage Requirements: Operational fields of 6–16 kV are standard, necessitating specialized power electronics and limiting clinical/consumer translation. Efforts are ongoing to develop high-$\varepsilon_r$ polymers (e.g., PVDF terpolymers) to reduce driving voltages by a factor of five (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Material and Seal Reliability: Long-term actuation at tens of newtons induces fluid leakage and seal fatigue, motivating advanced structures and fluid containment strategies (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Hysteresis and Model Fidelity: Moderate viscoelastic losses and nonlinear fluid–structure interactions limit model accuracy and control precision, particularly at high frequencies. Integration of multiphysics modeling and learning-based controllers is proposed (Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024).
• Miniaturization and Sensing Integration: While HV-rated components remain bulky, demonstration of complete on-board HV generation, miniature LV sensing circuits (<200g system, <\$200 BOM), and self-sensing PCB integration is already achieved (Ly et al., 2020).
• Application Spectrum: MRI compatibility (via non-magnetic shells and fluids) and low electromagnetic emission have been demonstrated in needle biopsy robots, expanding HASEL's reach into biomedical fields (Xiong et al., 25 Jan 2024).

A plausible implication is that further advances in materials, geometric design, and embedded electronics will propel HASELs toward untethered, compliant, and high-performance actuation for a wide range of soft robotic and biomedical systems.

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References:

(Wissman et al., 2021, Ly et al., 2020, Christoph et al., 5 Apr 2024, Cisneros et al., 19 Feb 2024, Kazemipour et al., 17 Sep 2024, Vogt et al., 5 Apr 2024, Xiong et al., 25 Jan 2024, Li et al., 27 Nov 2024)