On the Expressive Power and Capacity of Quantum Data Reuploaders

Abstract: Data reuploading---repeatedly encoding classical inputs at multiple layers of a parameterized quantum circuit---is a central mechanism for enhancing the expressivity of quantum neural networks (QNNs). Building on the Fourier-theoretic framework of Schuld et al.~\cite{schuld2021fourier}, we study the frequency spectrum of the general multivariate, $R$-reupload architecture (QDR). (i) We make explicit that the accessible frequencies form the set $K_R=S<sup>{(R)}-S<sup>{(R)}$, which equals the $R$-fold sumset $T<sup>{(R)}$ of the difference set $T=S-S$ of the encoding spectrum, and we characterise it exactly: $K_R={k\in\mathcal L:\ \ell_T(k)\le R}$, where $\mathcal L=\mathrm{span}_{\mathbb Z}(T)$ is an integer lattice and $\ell_T$ is word length in $T$. (ii) We show that the \emph{directions} of the spectrum stabilise already at $R=1$ (the real span of $K_R$ equals that of $\mathcal L$), whereas the spectrum itself never saturates: the maximal frequency grows linearly in $R$ and the number of frequencies grows polynomially, as $Θ(R<sup>{m})$ with $m=\mathrm{rank}\,\mathcal L$. (iii) Using the spectrum size, we give a Rademacher-complexity bound on the capacity of QDRs of order $\sqrt{|K_R|/n}$. (iv) We report experiments on function approximation and classification with train/test splits, several seeds and parameter-matched classical baselines. The simulated spectra match the theory exactly. A single-qubit QDR beats a matched MLP on several smooth or periodic univariate targets and on the spiral task, but it is clearly worse on multivariate regression ($d\ge4$), where it is highly sensitive to the input-encoding scale; it beats the MLP only on equations with $d\le3$ inputs.