Cumulative X-ray Damage in Bismuth Selenide Examined by Simultaneous TXM and XRD

Abstract: Bismuth selenide (Bi2Se3) is a topological insulator with potential applications in thermoelectrics, spintronics, and optoelectronics. However, its response to radiation remains poorly understood. We investigate cumulative X-ray damage in Bi2Se3 using simultane- ous transmission X-ray microscopy (TXM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) at the Pohang Accelerator Laboratory X-Ray Free Electron Laser (PAL-XFEL) over 27,000 successive pulses. We observe distinct damage mechanisms: rapid hole formation via vaporization within 100 pulses, followed by slower grain refinement and material sputtering over thousands of thermal cycles. Williamson-Hall analysis reveals a progressive transformation from single-crystal to nanocrystalline structure, with grain sizes decreasing from mi- cron to nanometer scale. Finite-element modeling confirms that X-rays penetrate 13.47 μm, driving local temperatures above 1600 K with subsequent cooling between pulses. Scanning electron microscopy identifies three characteristic morphologies correspond- ing to different thermal histories: sputter streaks, prismatic crystals, and disordered microcrystals. Our results demonstrate that grain-boundary formation creates a feedback mechanism that accelerates damage in later pulses. This work establishes a method- ology for studying radiation damage across multiple length scales and provides insight into topological insulator stability under extreme conditions