Operant Conditioning in Indian Free-Ranging Dogs: Effects of Positive and Threatening Cues on Sociability

Abstract: Sociability toward humans is a key adaptive trait in free-ranging dogs, enabling them to access resources while navigating risks associated with human interactions. In this study, we investigated whether operant conditioning shapes sociability in Indian free-ranging dogs and whether learned responses generalize to unfamiliar individuals. We experimentally exposed 58 dog groups to either positive or a threatening cue over five consecutive days and assessed their behaviour using approach proportion, approach latency, and demeanor across repeated interactions with a familiar experimenter, followed by a test with an unfamiliar individual. Using Bayesian generalized linear mixed models, we found that cue type and repeated exposure significantly influenced sociability. Dogs exposed to a positive cue showed increased approach behaviour and reduced approach latency over time, along with increased affiliative demeanor. In contrast, dogs exposed to threatening cues exhibited reduced approach behaviour, increased approach latency, and a shift toward neutral and less affiliative responses across days. Importantly, positive cues partially generalized across individuals, as dogs showed increased approach toward an unfamiliar experimenter, although this was accompanied by hesitation to approach. In contrast, threatening cues did not generalize in the same way; dogs did not reduce their approach toward unfamiliar individuals but displayed increased approach latency, indicating heightened caution. Our findings demonstrate that operant conditioning plays a crucial role in shaping dog-human interactions, with asymmetric generalization of positive and threatening experiences.