Environmental Threat and the Nation: Earthquake Risk, Distributive Priority, and Expressive Attachment

Abstract: This paper studies how long-run earthquake risk shapes national identity, separating a distributive margin (national membership as a rule for allocating scarce resources) from an expressive margin (pride, willingness to fight, and affective attachment). Linking World Values Survey respondents (1981-2022; 63 countries, 494 subnational regions) to subnational seismic-risk geography, I find that people living closer to high-risk zones express stronger national in-group orientation: more pride, more willingness to fight, and more priority for nationals when jobs are scarce. Family attachment and out-group hostility do not rise, while religiosity increases in parallel. The expressive margin is conditional: the pride response is pronounced where state-religion alignment and a cohesive religious field lend the symbolic infrastructure to cast disaster as a shared national ordeal, and indistinguishable from zero where they do not. A complementary design exploiting earthquakes between adjacent survey waves finds no average short-run response, yet the response it does detect concentrates among older, place-attached residents who cannot leave -- consistent with attitudes tracking a chronic, inescapable risk rather than single events. Together, the results point to a demand-side origin of national attachment: where a covariate shock would overwhelm local and family insurance, people turn to larger communities of protection and meaning -- the nation and religion -- a logic I formalize in a simple social-interaction model.