Extreme Transients in Gamma Rays

Abstract: Extreme gamma-ray transients represent some of the most energetic and physically constraining phenomena in high-energy astrophysics. They are characterized by rapid, large-amplitude variability and by physical conditions approaching fundamental limits on particle acceleration, cooling, and compactness. In this review, we focus on transients detected above around 100 MeV and define extreme events as either those involving catastrophic transformations of astrophysical systems (such as stellar explosions, compact-object mergers, and tidal-disruption events) or those exhibiting evidence for particle acceleration operating in an extreme regime. These systems are powered by the rapid release of gravitational, magnetic, nuclear, or kinetic energy, with shocks and magnetic reconnection playing a central role in producing ultra-relativistic particle populations and non-thermal radiation. We summarize observational and theoretical diagnostics that constrain the size, magnetization, and Lorentz factor of the emitting region, including variability timescales, luminosity-timescale correlations, and spectral evolution across the MeV-TeV domain. We further review the complementary capabilities of space-borne gamma-ray instruments, ground-based Cherenkov and air-shower observatories in detecting short-lived, high-energy outbursts. Extreme transient classes discussed include gamma-ray bursts, novae, rapidly variable emission from extragalactic and Galactic jets. Also, because of its extreme aspects, we include flaring emission detected from the Crab Nebula. While each type of these flares poses interesting challenges for phenomenology and theory of these sources, together, these events form the landscape of extreme gamma-ray variability.