From Superficial Outputs to Superficial Learning: Risks of Large Language Models in Education

Abstract: LLMs are transforming education by enabling personalization, feedback, and knowledge access, while also raising concerns about risks to students and learning systems. Yet empirical evidence on these risks remains fragmented. This paper presents a systematic review of 70 empirical studies across computer science, education, and psychology. Guided by four research questions, we examine: (i) which applications of LLMs in education have been most frequently explored; (ii) how researchers have measured their impact; (iii) which risks stem from such applications; and (iv) what mitigation strategies have been proposed. We find that research on LLMs clusters around three domains: operational effectiveness, personalized applications, and interactive learning tools. Across these, model-level risks include superficial understanding, bias, limited robustness, anthropomorphism, hallucinations, privacy concerns, and knowledge constraints. When learners interact with LLMs, these risks extend to cognitive and behavioural outcomes, including reduced neural activity, over-reliance, diminished independent learning skills, and a loss of student agency. To capture this progression, we propose an LLM-Risk Adapted Learning Model that illustrates how technical risks cascade through interaction and interpretation to shape educational outcomes. As the first synthesis of empirically assessed risks, this review provides a foundation for responsible, human-centred integration of LLMs in education.