Consonance in music -- the Pythagorean approach revisited

Abstract: The Pythagorean school attributed consonance in music to simplicity of frequency ratios between musical tones. In the last two centuries, the consonance curves developed by Helmholtz, Plompt and Levelt shifted focus to psycho-acoustic considerations in perceiving consonances. The appearance of peaks of these curves at the ratios considered by the Pythagorean school, and which were a consequence of an attempt to understand the world by nice mathematical proportions, remained a curiosity. This paper addresses this curiosity, by describing a mathematical model of musical sound, along with a mathematical definition of consonance. First, we define pure, complex and mixed tones as mathematical models of musical sound. By a sequence of numerical experiments and analytic calculations, we show that continuous cosine similarity, abbreviated as cosim, applied to these models quantifies the elusive concept of consonance as a frequency ratio which gives a local maximum of the cosim function. We prove that these maxima occur at the ratios considered as consonant in classical music theory. Moreover, we provide a simple explanation why the number of musical intervals considered as consonant by musicians is finite, but has been increasing over the centuries. Specifically, our formulas show that the number of consonant intervals changes with the depth of the tone (the number of harmonics present).