Cosmic Ray Ionization of Low-Excitation Lines in Active Galactic Nuclei and Starburst Galaxies

Abstract: Cosmic rays (CRs) can significantly impact dense molecular clouds in galaxies, heating the interstellar medium (ISM) and altering its chemistry, ionization, and thermal properties. Their influence is particularly relevant in environments with high CR rates, such as starburst galaxies with supernova remnants or jets and outflows in active galactic nuclei (AGN). CRs transfer energy to the ionized phase of the ISM far from the ionization source, preventing gas cooling and driving large-scale winds. In this work, we use CLOUDY to explore the effect of CRs on nebular gas, a relatively underexplored area, mainly focused on cold molecular gas. Our models cover a broad range of density ($1 - 10^4\,\rm{cm^{-3}}$), ionization parameter ($-3.5 \leq \log U \leq -1.5$), and CR ionization rate ($10^{-16}\, \rm{s^{-1}} - 10^{-12}\, \rm{s^{-1}}$). These are compared to MUSE observations of two AGN, Centaurus A and NGC 1068, and the starburst NGC 253. We find that CR rates $\gtrsim 10^{-13}\, \rm{s^{-1}}$, typical of AGN and strong starburst galaxies, can significantly alter the thermal structure of the ionized gas by forming a deep secondary low-ionization layer beyond the photoionization-dominated region. This enhances emission from low-ionization transitions, such as [\ion{N}{ii}], [\ion{S}{ii}], and [\ion{O}{i}], affecting line-ratio diagnostics, metallicity, and ionization estimates. Unlike pure photoionization models, AGN simulations with high CR ionization rates reproduce the Seyfert loci in BPT diagrams without requiring super-solar metallicities for the narrow-line region. Additionally, star formation simulations with high CR ionization rates can explain line ratios in the LINER domain. We propose new maximum starburst boundaries for BPT diagrams to distinguish regions dominated by AGN photoionization from those that could be explained by star formation plus high CR ionization rates.