Multi-head Transformers Provably Learn Symbolic Multi-step Reasoning via Gradient Descent (2508.08222v1)

Abstract: Transformers have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in multi-step reasoning tasks. However, understandings of the underlying mechanisms by which they acquire these abilities through training remain limited, particularly from a theoretical standpoint. This work investigates how transformers learn to solve symbolic multi-step reasoning problems through chain-of-thought processes, focusing on path-finding in trees. We analyze two intertwined tasks: a backward reasoning task, where the model outputs a path from a goal node to the root, and a more complex forward reasoning task, where the model implements two-stage reasoning by first identifying the goal-to-root path and then reversing it to produce the root-to-goal path. Our theoretical analysis, grounded in the dynamics of gradient descent, shows that trained one-layer transformers can provably solve both tasks with generalization guarantees to unseen trees. In particular, our multi-phase training dynamics for forward reasoning elucidate how different attention heads learn to specialize and coordinate autonomously to solve the two subtasks in a single autoregressive path. These results provide a mechanistic explanation of how trained transformers can implement sequential algorithmic procedures. Moreover, they offer insights into the emergence of reasoning abilities, suggesting that when tasks are structured to take intermediate chain-of-thought steps, even shallow multi-head transformers can effectively solve problems that would otherwise require deeper architectures.

• The paper shows that shallow, multi-head transformers can learn symbolic multi-step reasoning for backward and forward path-finding tasks using gradient descent.
• It develops a theoretical framework detailing how attention heads specialize, achieving provable convergence with explicit bounds on training iterations.
• Empirical validations confirm that extending chain-of-thought steps in a one-layer model enables generalization to unseen tree structures.

Provable Multi-step Symbolic Reasoning in Multi-head Transformers via Gradient Descent

Introduction and Motivation

This paper provides a rigorous theoretical analysis of how shallow, multi-head transformer architectures can be trained via gradient descent to perform symbolic multi-step reasoning, specifically path-finding in trees. The work addresses two intertwined tasks: backward reasoning (goal-to-root path extraction) and forward reasoning (root-to-goal path extraction, requiring a two-stage process). The analysis is grounded in the training dynamics of one-layer transformers, elucidating how multi-head attention enables specialization and coordination for complex, multi-stage reasoning tasks. The results demonstrate that even shallow transformers, when equipped with sufficient chain-of-thought (CoT) steps, can generalize algorithmic procedures to unseen tree structures, challenging the conventional necessity of architectural depth for such tasks.

Problem Formulation and Transformer Construction

The symbolic reasoning task is formalized as path-finding in randomly generated trees, with the input consisting of edge lists, root, and goal nodes. Two tasks are considered:

• Backward Reasoning: Output the path from the goal node to the root.
• Forward Reasoning: Output the path from the root to the goal, requiring the model to first solve the backward task and then reverse the path.

The transformer architecture is a single-layer model with $H$ attention heads. For backward reasoning, a single head suffices; for forward reasoning, two heads are required. The input embedding encodes edges as concatenated parent and child node embeddings. Reasoning proceeds autoregressively, with each output token appended to the input for the next step.

Explicit parameter constructions are provided for both tasks. For backward reasoning, the attention matrix is constructed to yield sharp, self-attending patterns, ensuring the query node attends only to itself. For forward reasoning, two stage token embeddings ($s_f$, $s_b$) are introduced to signal reasoning phases, and the two heads specialize: one for path traversal, the other for stage control.

Figure 1: Node ordering in a perfect binary tree of depth $m=3$, illustrating the structural complexity addressed in the reasoning tasks.

Training Dynamics and Generalization

The optimization analysis tracks the evolution of key parameter matrices under gradient descent. For backward reasoning, the diagonal entries of the attention matrix grow while off-diagonal entries remain small, converging to the constructed solution. For forward reasoning, a multi-phase analysis reveals how the two heads autonomously specialize: one head's parameters control path extraction, while the other head's parameters manage stage transitions.

Theoretical results guarantee convergence of the training loss to zero within $\widetilde{O}(1/\epsilon)$ iterations for backward reasoning and $\widetilde{O}(1/\epsilon^{3/2})$ for forward reasoning, with explicit bounds on resource requirements. Generalization bounds show that the learned models solve path-finding on unseen trees, with test loss scaling as $O(\epsilon)$, confirming that the transformer learns algorithmic rules rather than memorizing training data.

Figure 2: Training and test loss curves for backward reasoning, demonstrating rapid convergence and strong generalization.

Figure 3: Training dynamics of selected entries of $H$, showing diagonal dominance and off-diagonal suppression as predicted by theory.

Figure 4: Training and test loss curves for forward reasoning, validating multi-phase convergence and generalization.

Figure 5: Training dynamics of selected entries of $U_l, V_l$ for $l=1,2,3$, illustrating specialization and coordination of attention heads.

Mechanistic Insights and Implications

The analysis provides a mechanistic explanation for the emergence of multi-step reasoning in transformers. In the forward reasoning task, the two heads learn to coordinate: one head extracts the backward path as a scratchpad, while the other head monitors the reasoning phase and triggers the transition to forward path output. This specialization emerges autonomously from gradient descent, without explicit architectural constraints.

The results challenge the prevailing view that architectural depth is necessary for complex reasoning. Instead, the findings show that extending the length of intermediate CoT steps enables shallow models to solve tasks that would otherwise require deeper architectures. This has practical implications for model design, suggesting that reasoning capabilities can be unlocked via prompt engineering and training strategies that encourage explicit intermediate steps.

Numerical Results

Empirical validation confirms the theoretical predictions. Training and test loss curves for both tasks show rapid convergence and strong generalization. The tracked parameter dynamics match the theoretical analysis, with attention matrices specializing as predicted. The experiments use one-hot embeddings and stochastic gradient descent on randomly generated perfect binary trees, with batch sizes and learning rates chosen to match theoretical assumptions.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The work advances the theoretical understanding of transformer optimization and generalization in symbolic reasoning tasks. It demonstrates that multi-head attention enables autonomous specialization and coordination, even in shallow architectures. The results have implications for the design of efficient, interpretable models for algorithmic reasoning, and suggest avenues for scaling reasoning capabilities via CoT prompt engineering rather than increased depth.

Future research may extend these results to more general graph structures, richer reasoning tasks, and deeper architectures. The mechanistic insights into head specialization and stage control may inform interpretability studies and the development of modular, compositional reasoning systems.

Conclusion

This paper provides a comprehensive theoretical and empirical analysis of how one-layer, multi-head transformers can be trained via gradient descent to perform symbolic multi-step reasoning, with provable generalization to unseen structures. The results elucidate the role of multi-head attention in enabling specialization and coordination for complex, multi-stage reasoning tasks, and demonstrate that shallow architectures, when equipped with sufficient CoT steps, can implement algorithmic procedures previously thought to require depth. These findings have significant implications for the design and training of efficient, interpretable reasoning models in AI.