Multi-Modal Action Representation

Updated 7 July 2025

Multi-modal action representation is a framework that encodes actions using multiple complementary sensor modalities including video, audio, and bio-signals.
It employs feature fusion methods—ranging from early to adaptive late fusion—to combine modality-specific cues and mitigate issues like occlusion and noise.
This approach is applied in fields such as surveillance, human-robot collaboration, and healthcare, achieving high accuracy benchmarks on standard datasets.

Multi-modal action representation refers to encoding and modeling human or robotic actions using features derived from multiple sensor or data modalities—such as RGB video, depth, skeleton, audio, EMG, force, and natural language. By leveraging the complementary strengths of diverse sensing streams, multi-modal representations have become essential for achieving robust, discriminative, and context-rich action understanding in varied environments and applications.

1. Foundational Concepts: Modalities and Feature Fusion

A central principle of multi-modal action representation is that no single modality can capture all relevant cues for action understanding. For instance:

Visual modalities (RGB, depth, infrared, video) capture appearance and coarse motion, but can be susceptible to occlusion, lighting changes, and viewpoint shifts.
Skeleton/joint trajectories provide pose and articulated body motion; their invariance to background and lighting offers robustness, though they may be noisy or fail if pose estimation is unreliable.
Audio signals encapsulate contextual or semantic information that may be absent visually (e.g., footsteps, spoken commands) (Shaikh et al., 2022).
Bio-signals such as EMG afford early detection and insight into force/muscle engagement, often preceding visible motion (Wang et al., 2019).
Proprioceptive signals (force/torque, gripper width, joint states) are crucial in robotics for distinguishing contact-rich manipulation and action boundaries (Sliwowski et al., 25 Apr 2025), while exteroceptive cues enrich object and scene context.
Textual information and language-based embeddings encode high-level semantics, class names, or compositional action descriptions, providing actor- and domain-independent priors (Mondal et al., 2023).

Effective multi-modal action models employ various strategies for feature fusion: some combine features at the input level (early fusion), while others integrate modality-specific features at intermediate or output stages (late fusion, middle fusion, or via attention mechanisms). Early fusion can enhance representation efficiency (as in UmURL (Sun et al., 2023)), while late or adaptive fusion can mitigate modality bias and integrate complementary information selectively (e.g., modality compensation (Song et al., 2020), MCU/CFEM (Lee et al., 2023), transformer query fusion (Mondal et al., 2023)).

2. Structured Representations and Learning Frameworks

Multi-modal action representation methodologies range from handcrafted to deep learning–based approaches. Common strategies include:

Multipart, Multimodal Descriptors: Actions are represented as compositions of part-level multi-modal features (e.g., joint sparse regression on skeleton, LOP, HON4D for depth) (Shahroudy et al., 2015). Grouping and structured sparsity (mixed or hierarchical norms) enable selection of discriminative body parts or feature groups.
Probabilistic and Contextual Motion Concepts: Actions are modeled as distributions over low-level motion primitives, object interactions, and spatial context (e.g., "motion concept" mixtures with explicit object/location modeling) (Vasco et al., 2019).
Primitive Decomposition: Decomposing motion, force, or muscle signals into discrete, interpretable primitive features enables symbolic and physically meaningful action summaries, aiding both recognition and robot learning (Abbasi et al., 2019).
Transformer Architectures with Multimodal Queries: Recent models use transformer decoders to jointly process visual and textual query representations. Multi-modal query formed by concatenation/projection of language (class names, prompts) and spatio-temporal embeddings enables actor-agnostic, multi-label action recognition (Mondal et al., 2023).
Audio-Image and Video Fusion Networks: Audio signals are transformed into image-based representations (MFCCs, chromagrams) and fused with video features using CNNs or transformers, enabling robust cross-modal interaction (Shaikh et al., 2022, Shaikh et al., 2023).
Graph-based Temporal Fusion: Sinusoidal encodings of 3D pose and graph-based temporal aggregation allow robust segmentation and reduce over-segmentation in noisy, multi-rate data (Xing et al., 1 Jul 2025).
Prompt-based LLM Integration: Structured prompts (action triplets, action state descriptions) generated by LLMs guide visual/LLMs (e.g., CLIP) to align fine-grained compositional and dynamic knowledge, enhancing discriminative action representation (Tian et al., 30 Jun 2025).

3. Optimization and Regularization Techniques

Addressing the complexity and redundancy introduced by multi-modal features requires sophisticated regularization and normalization:

Hierarchical Mixed Norms: Regularization across modalities, parts, and classes (e.g., L⁴/L²/L¹-norms) enforces groupwise feature diversity, modality coupling, and global sparsity (Shahroudy et al., 2015).
Consistency Losses: Enforcing intra- and inter-modal consistency (e.g., via mean squared error between decomposed joint/uni-modal features) avoids dominance by any modality and ensures semantic completeness (Sun et al., 2023).
Residual Adaptation and Cross-Modal Alignment: Residual connections combined with adaptation losses (e.g., Maximum Mean Discrepancy) align latent representations between source and auxiliary modalities (skeleton, RGB, flow), allowing models to perform well even if certain modalities are absent at inference (Song et al., 2020).
Data Augmentation and Ensemble Methods: Techniques such as SmoothLabelMix for temporal smoothing, exponentially annealed focal loss for imbalanced classes, and ensemble averaging (late fusion of RGB/depth predictions) further stabilize training and inference under heterogeneous, imbalanced, or noisy data (Xing et al., 1 Jul 2025, Kini et al., 2023).

4. Performance Benchmarks and Ablation Evidence

Performance gains from multi-modal integration have been consistently benchmarked across standard datasets:

Dataset	Approach/Model	Modalities	Accuracy / mAP
NTU RGB+D 60/120	M-Mixer (MCU/CFEM) (Lee et al., 2023)	RGB, Depth, IR	Up to 93.16%
UCF-101 (51 classes)	MAiVAR-T Transformer (Shaikh et al., 2023)	Video, Audio-Image	Top-1: 91.2%
MSR-DailyActivity3D	Hier. Mixed Norm (Shahroudy et al., 2015)	Skeleton, LOP, HON4D	91.25%
Animal Kingdom	MSQNet (Mondal et al., 2023)	Video, Text	mAP > 73 (prior best: 25.25)
Bimanual Actions	MMGCN (Xing et al., 1 Jul 2025)	RGB, skeleton, objects	F1@10: 94.5%, F1@25: 92.8%
REASSEMBLE	M2R2 (Sliwowski et al., 25 Apr 2025)	Vision, Audio, Prop.	+46.6% over prior SOTA

Ablation studies in these works consistently highlight that:

Removing cross-modal mixing or replacement with standard RNNs degrades accuracy by several percentage points (Lee et al., 2023, Lee et al., 2022).
Early fusion with modality-specific embedding and consistency learning is more efficient and achieves better performance than redundant late-fusion ensembles (Sun et al., 2023).
Incorporating structured prompts and adaptive cross-attention improves fine-grained action recognition versus baseline CLIP or object-level methods (Tian et al., 30 Jun 2025).

5. Applications, Implications, and Limitations

Multi-modal action representation underpins a broad spectrum of practical applications:

Surveillance and Security: Enhanced action recognition from depth/RGB, audio, or skeleton increases anomaly detection and activity monitoring robustness (Shahroudy et al., 2015).
Human–Robot Collaboration: Robots learning from or interacting with humans benefit from representational frameworks that encode manipulation action primitives, context, and affordance (Abbasi et al., 2019, Wang et al., 26 Oct 2024).
Healthcare and Assistive Technology: Accurate activity recognition in smart environments supports rehabilitation, fall detection, and elder care (Wang et al., 2019).
Smart Home and HCI: Few-shot and sample-efficient action learning allow adaptive interfaces and gesture control with minimal user demonstrations (Vasco et al., 2019, Rai et al., 2021).
Robotics: Discrete interaction mode representations and multimodal fusion are crucial for manipulation planning, temporal segmentation, and long-horizon skill autonomy (Wang et al., 26 Oct 2024, Sliwowski et al., 25 Apr 2025).

Limitations typically arise from data scarcity, synchronization and alignment challenges, or modality failures (e.g., undetected skeletons, noisy EMG). Models relying solely on vision are vulnerable to occlusion, while missing modalities can degrade late-fusion systems unless adaptation or compensation has been learned (Song et al., 2020). Efforts to address these include flexible architectures that handle missing or partial modalities and leverage transfer learning with large-scale RGB datasets (Wang et al., 11 Jun 2025).

6. Recent Directions: Prompt-based, Actor-agnostic, and Temporal Segmentation Models

Emerging trends emphasize:

Prompt-based LLM integration: Leveraging LLM-generated structured action prompts (triplets and states) for compositional semantics and causal knowledge, which improves image–text alignment and retrieval (Tian et al., 30 Jun 2025).
Actor-agnostic Modeling: Unified transformer architectures with multi-modal semantic queries (visual and textual) operate without explicit actor localization or pose estimation, achieving high performance on both human and animal action datasets (Mondal et al., 2023).
Robust Temporal Segmentation: Hierarchical fusion and label mixing methods combined with sinusoidal position encoding address over-segmentation in noisy, asynchronous multi-sensor data (Xing et al., 1 Jul 2025).
Reusable Modular Feature Extraction: Decoupling sensory fusion from action segmentation enables shared multimodal features to be reused across architectures, facilitating flexible integration and greater modularity (Sliwowski et al., 25 Apr 2025).

7. Outlook

Research in multi-modal action representation continues to expand, driven by advances in sensor technology, deep multimodal fusion architectures, and the integration of external semantic knowledge. The combination of modular, scalable, and context-driven representations enables robust, generalizable action understanding—critical for both autonomous robotic systems and human-centric applications in complex, real-world settings. The future trajectory involves not only refining fusion strategies and representations but also addressing challenges in data alignment, real-time efficiency, cross-domain transfer, and sample efficiency, with anticipated broad impact across robotics, computer vision, and multimodal AI.