Jacobi Curves: Geometry, Arithmetic, Spectral

• Jacobi curves are parameterized curves in a Lagrangian Grassmannian that generalize classical Jacobi fields and encode quadratic forms and curvature invariants.
• They appear in diverse settings such as symplectic geometry, Finsler geometry, and optimal control, providing a framework for analyzing dynamical systems and differential operators.
• In arithmetic and spectral theories, Jacobi quartics and spectral curves facilitate cryptographic schemes and eigenvalue analyses via birational equivalences and continued fractions.

In the literature represented here, the expression Jacobi curves is used in several distinct senses. In symplectic and differential geometry, it denotes curves $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$ in the Lagrangian Grassmannian of a symplectic vector space, satisfying regularity conditions and generalizing spaces of Jacobi fields along geodesics; this is the setting developed by Agrachev and Zelenko and applied to Finsler geometry and optimal control (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025). In arithmetic geometry and elliptic-curve theory, the term also refers to the Jacobi quartic and Jacobi intersection models of elliptic curves over finite fields (Farashahi, 2011), including cryptographic differential-arithmetic variants on extended Jacobi quartics (Hosseini et al., 18 Jun 2026). In spectral theory, Jacobi curves can mean the spectral curves of finite Jacobi pencils $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$ (Shapiro, 14 May 2026). Closely related but distinct terminology includes Jacobi inversion, Abel–Jacobi maps, and Jacobians of algebraic curves (Ayano, 2016, Komeda et al., 2018, Bernatska et al., 2022, Bogatyrev, 2013, Agostini et al., 2021, Krichever, 2021).

1. Jacobi curves in the Lagrangian Grassmannian

In the symplectic-geometric sense, a Jacobi curve is a curve

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$

in the Lagrangian Grassmannian of a symplectic vector space $(W,\omega)$, where $\dim W=2n$. A Lagrangian subspace $\Lambda\subset W$ is a maximal isotropic subspace, equivalently $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$. The tangent space at a Lagrangian subspace $\Lambda_0$ is naturally identified with symmetric bilinear forms on $\Lambda_0$,

$$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$

and if $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$0 with $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$1, the tangent vector is represented by

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$2

Thus the derivative of the curve is interpreted as a quadratic form on the current Lagrangian subspace (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

The regularity hierarchy used in this theory has three levels: non-singular means $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$3; regular means $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$4 is a nondegenerate quadratic form on each $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$5; and monotonous means $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$6 is definite. The paper on classification studies regular Jacobi curves, with the definite case singled out because it yields a canonical geometric parameter (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025). The relevant symmetry group is the conformal symplectic group

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$7

since the Lagrangian Grassmannian depends only on the conformal class $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$8. Jacobi curves are classified up to the action of $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$9 together with reparametrization (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

This framework is explicitly presented as a far-reaching extension of the classical spaces of Jacobi fields along Riemannian geodesics. The same structure appears in Hamiltonian systems, optimal control, matrix Riccati equations, and Lorentzian conformal geometry (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025). A complementary formulation in Finsler geometry starts from a moving plane

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$0

where $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$1 are distributions on a manifold $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$2 and $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$3 is a flow preserving $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$4. At a point $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$5, the associated Jacobi curve is

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$6

a curve of subspaces in the fixed vector space $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$7 (Duran et al., 2017). In optimal control, Jacobi curves arise from the $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$8-derivative construction: the second variation of a constrained problem is encoded by a Lagrangian subspace, and its time evolution gives a curve $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$9 in a fixed symplectic space (Agrachev et al., 2018).

2. Derivative curve, curvature, and classification

A central construction is the derivative curve. If $(W,\omega)$0 and a Jacobi curve is represented in an affine chart by symmetric matrices $(W,\omega)$1, then for a regular Jacobi curve there exists a unique $(W,\omega)$2 such that

$(W,\omega)$3

This $(W,\omega)$4 is the derivative curve. In affine coordinates it is given by

$(W,\omega)$5

The construction is the higher-dimensional analogue of the distinguished point in $(W,\omega)$6 that cancels second derivative terms in dimension $(W,\omega)$7 (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

From the derivative curve, the paper defines the Ricci curvature operator

$(W,\omega)$8

If the curve is represented by a symmetric matrix $(W,\omega)$9, then the matrix of $\dim W=2n$0 is the matrix-valued Schwarzian derivative

$\dim W=2n$1

The Ricci curvature operator is symmetric with respect to the bilinear form $\dim W=2n$2, hence diagonalizable, and its trace

$\dim W=2n$3

is the parametric Ricci curvature (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

Reparametrization acts through a Schwarzian correction: $\dim W=2n$4 This leads to a projective parameter $\dim W=2n$5 with $\dim W=2n$6, and then to the geometric arc element

$\dim W=2n$7

Using this normalization, the absolute curvature operator is

$\dim W=2n$8

The classification theorem states that Jacobi curves are determined by a complete family of $\dim W=2n$9 independent conformal symplectic curvature invariants (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

The Cartan-like theory associates to an admissible Jacobi curve a reduced normal Cartan matrix built from a skew-symmetric matrix $\Lambda\subset W$0, a diagonal matrix $\Lambda\subset W$1 whose diagonal entries are the eigenvalues $\Lambda\subset W$2 of the Ricci curvature operator, and the identity block. The normalization condition is

$\Lambda\subset W$3

Given smooth $\Lambda\subset W$4 and diagonal $\Lambda\subset W$5 satisfying this constraint and a symplectic basis at $\Lambda\subset W$6, there exists a unique Jacobi curve with that reduced Cartan data. In this sense, an admissible Jacobi curve is characterized, up to conformal symplectic transformations, by its reduced normal Cartan matrix together with a geometric parametrization (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

The same paper develops the theory of cycles. Fixing a Lagrangian subspace $\Lambda\subset W$7, an affine line $\Lambda\subset W$8 yields

$\Lambda\subset W$9

called a cycle. Regular cycles are exactly the flat models: a regular cycle gives a Jacobi curve with zero absolute curvature, and conversely a Jacobi curve with projective parameter and $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$0 is contained in a regular cycle (Bautista et al., 19 Sep 2025).

3. Finsler geometry and optimal control

In Finsler geometry, Jacobi curves are attached to sprays and geodesic flows. For a spray $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$1 on a manifold $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$2, the relevant moving plane on $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$3 is

$\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$4

where $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$5 is the vertical tangent bundle and $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$6 is the flow of $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$7. The resulting Jacobi curve is fanning when

$\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$8

form a frame of the ambient distribution. For sprays this regularity holds, so the Jacobi curve is fanning (Duran et al., 2017).

The basic invariants of a fanning curve are the fundamental endomorphism, the horizontal curve, the Jacobi endomorphism, and the Wronskian. If $\Lambda=\Lambda^\perp$9 is a frame of the curve, the fundamental endomorphism is defined by

$\Lambda_0$0

and in the spray case it becomes the almost tangent structure: $\Lambda_0$1 The horizontal curve $\Lambda_0$2 comes from the $\Lambda_0$3-eigenspaces of $\Lambda_0$4, giving a splitting

$\Lambda_0$5

and in the spray case it coincides with the canonical Ehresmann horizontal distribution: $\Lambda_0$6 The Jacobi endomorphism $\Lambda_0$7 is expressed by the Schwarzian of a frame, while the Wronskian is the symmetric bilinear form associated with a Lagrangian curve (Duran et al., 2017).

For a Finsler metric $\Lambda_0$8, the Jacobi curve along a geodesic $\Lambda_0$9 based at $\Lambda_0$0 is

$\Lambda_0$1

The paper identifies the Wronskian with the fundamental tensor $\Lambda_0$2, the Jacobi endomorphism with the curvature endomorphism $\Lambda_0$3, and the flag curvature with a quotient of the Jacobi endomorphism by the Wronskian: $\Lambda_0$4 This gives a dynamical interpretation of flag curvature, and the same framework yields an O’Neill-type formula under Finsler submersions and curvature transformation laws under deformations $\Lambda_0$5 by a closed $\Lambda_0$6-form (Duran et al., 2017).

In optimal control and constrained variational calculus, the Jacobi curve is constructed from the $\Lambda_0$7-derivative. For a critical pair $\Lambda_0$8 of a functional $\Lambda_0$9 under constraints $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$0, the linearized relation

$$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$1

defines a Lagrangian subspace

$$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$2

for finite-dimensional variation spaces $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$3, and the full $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$4-derivative is obtained as a generalized limit over increasing finite-dimensional subspaces (Agrachev et al., 2018). For an extremal of a control system, the Jacobi curve is

$$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$5

An explicit representation uses

$$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$6

together with an orthogonality identity involving the symplectic form $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$7 and a quadratic form $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$8 (Agrachev et al., 2018).

The symplectic setting includes the Lagrangian Grassmannian $$T_{\Lambda_0}\mathscr{L}(W)\cong \mathcal{S}(\Lambda_0),$$9, a reference Lagrangian plane $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$00, the Maslov train

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$01

and the Maslov, Kashiwara, and Leray indices. The main Morse-type theorem expresses the negative inertia index of the Hessian through symplectic indices of the Jacobi curve: $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$02 This generalizes classical Jacobi-field and conjugate-point theory to nonsmooth extremals, including bang-bang trajectories and abnormal extremals (Agrachev et al., 2018).

4. Jacobi quartic and Jacobi intersection curves

A different and longstanding use of the term concerns elliptic curves in Jacobi form. Over a finite field $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$03 of characteristic $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$04, two one-parameter families are considered (Farashahi, 2011):

Family	Equation	Restriction
Jacobi quartic	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$05	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$06
Jacobi intersection	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$07	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$08

These families are treated together as the Jacobi family. Their arithmetic is controlled by explicit birational equivalences: for $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$09, the Jacobi quartic $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$10 is birationally equivalent over $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$11 to the Legendre curve $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$12, and $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$13 is birationally equivalent over $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$14 to $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$15 (Farashahi, 2011). This is the mechanism used to transfer counting results from Legendre to Jacobi models.

For Jacobi quartics, the $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$16-invariant is

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$17

The paper then proves that the number of $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$18-isomorphism classes in the Legendre, Jacobi quartic, and Jacobi intersection families coincide: $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$19 Since the Legendre count is known, the Jacobi counts are

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$20

Likewise the number of distinct $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$21-invariants is

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$22

The contrast with the Hessian family is explicit: Jacobi counts match Legendre counts exactly because of the birational reductions, whereas Hessian curves require a separate analysis with different formulas and finer congruence conditions (Farashahi, 2011).

A cryptographic extension studies the extended Jacobi quartic

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$23

defined over a field $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$24 of characteristic $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$25, with $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$26. It is birationally equivalent to

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$27

and the paper emphasizes that Jacobi quartics include, up to $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$28-isomorphism, Legendre, Edwards, twisted Edwards, and Montgomery curves (Hosseini et al., 18 Jun 2026). The group law is given explicitly, the identity is $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$29, negation is $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$30, and $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$31 is a rational point of order $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$32.

The cryptographic focus is Montgomery-style differential addition and doubling. New formulas are given with costs

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$33

when the given difference point is in affine form (Hosseini et al., 18 Jun 2026). A major structural result is that if an elliptic curve $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$34 of odd characteristic has a subgroup of order $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$35, then $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$36 admits dADD-M formulas because it is $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$37-isomorphic to an appropriate Jacobi quartic. The theory relies on several $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$38-functions invariant under different torsion subgroups or cosets, and on an isogeny lemma transferring differential functions through isogenies. The paper’s stated motivation is both arithmetic efficiency and side-channel resistance, since the ladder uses the same operation pattern for each scalar bit (Hosseini et al., 18 Jun 2026).

5. Spectral curves of finite Jacobi pencils

In spectral theory, Jacobi curves can mean the spectral curves of finite Jacobi pencils

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$39

where $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$40 is diagonal and $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$41 is tridiagonal with zero diagonal and off-diagonal entries $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$42. The spectral curve is the affine plane algebraic curve

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$43

Since $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$44 is even in $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$45, one often writes

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$46

and the continuant recurrence is

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$47

For each fixed $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$48, the solutions in $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$49 are the eigenvalues of $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$50 (Shapiro, 14 May 2026).

The central result is generic irreducibility: if the diagonal entries $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$51 are pairwise distinct, then for fixed $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$52, the polynomial $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$53 is irreducible in $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$54 for all $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$55 outside a proper algebraic subset. The proof shows that the monodromy of the eigenvalue branches contains all adjacent transpositions

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$56

hence the monodromy group is $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$57, which implies irreducibility. In the connected case $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$58, consecutive continuants are coprime: $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$59 so $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$60 and $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$61 have no common irreducible component (Shapiro, 14 May 2026).

The paper isolates four basic reducibility mechanisms:

Mechanism	Condition	Effect
Disconnected chain	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$62	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$63 factors into smaller-chain characteristic polynomials
Constant branch	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$64	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$65 is a factor
Reflection symmetry	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$66, $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$67	splitting into symmetric and antisymmetric parts
Scalar diagonal block	$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$68	complete factorization over $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$69 as $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$70

These mechanisms motivate an amended reducibility conjecture: every reducible factorization should be built by iterating cutting at $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$71, constant-branch extraction, palindromic splitting, and scalar-diagonal decomposition (Shapiro, 14 May 2026).

Low-dimensional evidence is explicit. In degree $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$72,

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$73

is reducible iff $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$74 or $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$75. In degree $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$76, assuming $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$77, reducibility is equivalent to the presence of a constant branch, namely either

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$78

or

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$79

In degree $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$80, both palindromic splitting and scalar-diagonal splitting occur; the example

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$81

gives

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$82

which is connected, reducible, and not palindromic. The guiding principle is a codimension-growth slogan: aside from the divisors $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$83, genuinely connected primitive reducibility should move to higher and higher codimension as the size of the chain grows (Shapiro, 14 May 2026).

6. Neighboring terminology: Jacobians, Jacobi inversion, and Jacobi operators

The name Jacobi in algebraic geometry often points not to Jacobi curves in the symplectic sense, but to Jacobians, Abel–Jacobi maps, and Jacobi inversion. On telescopic curves, Jacobi inversion formulae recover divisor coordinates from the Abel–Jacobi image through sigma functions and Frobenius–Stickelberger determinants; for a divisor $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$84, the paper proves

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$85

and derives lower-stratum identities involving ratios $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$86 (Ayano, 2016). For curves in Weierstrass normal form, a shifted Abel map and a shifted Riemann constant are used to obtain strata-wise inversion formulae in terms of theta derivatives and Frobenius–Stickelberger functions $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$87 (Komeda et al., 2018). For non-hyperelliptic $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$88-curves, the Jacobi inversion problem is solved constructively by entire rational functions $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$89 whose coefficients are Kleinian $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$90-functions, with explicit formulas for trigonal, tetragonal, and pentagonal curves (Bernatska et al., 2022).

The Abel–Jacobi image of a curve inside its Jacobian is another nearby topic. For genus $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$91 and $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$92 hyperelliptic curves, the image $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$93 is described as an intersection of shifted theta divisors, with explicitly identified parasitic components: in genus $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$94, three shifted theta equations leave only one residual point, while in genus $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$95, four such equations leave eight residual points (Bogatyrev, 2013). From a computational Torelli viewpoint, a smooth non-hyperelliptic curve can be numerically reconstructed from its Jacobian by building Dubrovin quartics from theta constants and derivatives; the projection of the Dubrovin threefold to the $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$96-coordinates is the canonical model of the curve (Agostini et al., 2021). A different characterization shows that Jacobians of curves with involution having fixed points are exactly those principally polarized abelian varieties containing a shifted Abelian subvariety whose Kummer image is orthogonal to an explicitly given vector (Krichever, 2021).

These topics are terminologically close but conceptually distinct from Jacobi curves. The same caution applies to the area Jacobi operator for complex curves in Kähler surfaces. There the object of study is the second-variation operator of area on a complex curve $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$97, written as

$\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$98

with first eigenvalue $\chi_n(\lambda,w)=0$99 defined by

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$00

The paper proves the Lichnerowicz-type estimate

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$01

and in the Kähler-Einstein case with positive Einstein constant $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$02,

$\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$03

Equality is analyzed through holomorphic sections of the normal bundle and is achieved for all curves of genus $\Gamma(t)\subset \mathscr{L}(W)$04 (Xie, 26 Feb 2026).

Taken together, these literatures show that Jacobi curves is not a single universal notion. In symplectic geometry it is a curve in a Lagrangian Grassmannian carrying conformal symplectic curvature invariants; in elliptic-curve arithmetic it denotes specific quartic and intersection models of elliptic curves; in spectral theory it denotes the spectral curve of a Jacobi pencil; and in algebraic geometry it must be distinguished from the broader Jacobian and Abel–Jacobi vocabulary.