Hot Dust-Obscured Galaxies (Hot DOGs)

Updated 11 November 2025

Hot DOGs are a rare class of hyper-luminous, dust-enshrouded quasars characterized by extreme infrared luminosities (L_IR > 10^13 L_⊙) and high dust temperatures (T_d ≳ 60–120 K).
Identified via the WISE 'W1W2-dropout' color criterion, they trace a short-lived, merger-driven phase of rapid SMBH growth and intense AGN activity.
Multiwavelength studies reveal heavy nuclear obscuration, high Eddington accretion rates, and dense proto-cluster environments, underscoring their role in feedback-regulated galaxy evolution.

Hot Dust-Obscured Galaxies (Hot DOGs) are a rare, hyper-luminous subclass of infrared-selected quasars characterized by extreme rest-frame mid-infrared (mid-IR) luminosities (L_IR > 10¹³ L_⊙, often exceeding 10¹⁴ L_⊙), high dust temperatures (T_d ≳ 60–120 K), and strong nuclear extinction (A_V ~ 10–60 mag). Discovered by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) primarily via the “W1W2 dropout” color criterion, Hot DOGs represent a brief, rapidly evolving phase of galaxy/SMBH co-assembly at z ≃ 1–4, coinciding with cluster-scale overdensities and frequent galaxy mergers. Their multiwavelength properties point to buried, Eddington or super-Eddington active galactic nuclei (AGN) accreting within heavily dust-enshrouded hosts, with feedback-driven outflows and high molecular gas excitation tracing imminent emergence as UV/optical-bright Type 1 quasars.

1. Discovery, Selection Criteria, and Demographics

Hot DOGs were identified in the WISE All-Sky catalog by their extremely red mid-IR colors: faint or absent in W1 (3.4 μm) and W2 (4.6 μm), but bright in W3 (12 μm, W3 < 10.6 or 7.7 mag) and/or W4 (22 μm, W4 < 7.7 mag) with W2–W3 > 5.3 mag or W2–W4 > 8.2 mag (all Vega). This “W1W2-dropout” criterion isolates sources with rest-frame mid-IR SEDs peaking at ~20–30 μm, signifying hot dust and heavy nuclear obscuration (Assef et al., 2014, Fan et al., 2018).

Spectroscopic follow-up reveals that Hot DOGs predominantly lie at 1 ≲ z ≲ 4.6, with a bimodal redshift distribution peaking at z ~ 2–3 (Assef et al., 2014). Their surface density is ~0.03 deg⁻² for W4 < 7.2 mag, implying a space density ≈3×10^{–10–10^–9} Mpc^–3 at z~2–4.6, comparable to the rarest, most luminous unobscured quasars. Recent systematic searches using WISE+Herschel have extended the Hot DOG class down to z ≲ 0.5, revealing analogs with similar SEDs and accretion properties but lower stellar and SMBH masses, and a tenfold drop in number density, consistent with the overall decline in cosmic molecular gas and AGN activity since z~2 (Li et al., 9 Feb 2025, Li et al., 2023).

2. Spectral Energy Distributions, Obscuration, and Dust Properties

The prototypical Hot DOG SED rises steeply from rest ∼1 to ≳20 μm, remains approximately flat (in νF_ν) across 10–100 μm, then falls off beyond 100 μm (Rayleigh–Jeans tail). Their mid-far-IR emission requires bulk dust temperatures T_d ≃ 60–100 K, with some components reaching T ≳ 300 K (Jones et al., 2014, Li et al., 2023). SED decomposition analyses have established that ≳95% of the total infrared luminosity in the most extreme objects (e.g. W2246-0526 at z=4.6) arises from AGN-heated dust within a nuclear torus, while star-formation-powered cold dust contributes only a minor fraction (typically 5–24%) (Fan et al., 2018, Fan et al., 2017).

The total IR luminosity is computed as:

$L_\mathrm{IR} = 4\pi D_L^2 \int_{8\,\mu\mathrm{m}}^{1000\,\mu\mathrm{m}} S_\nu d\nu$

where D_L is the luminosity distance. Dust masses are estimated via:

$M_\mathrm{dust} = \frac{S_{\nu_0} D_L^2}{\kappa_{\nu_0} B_{\nu_0}(T_\mathrm{dust})}$

with $\kappa_{\nu_0}$ the dust absorption coefficient and $B_{\nu_0}$ the Planck function. In W2246-0526, $M_\mathrm{dust} \sim 9.1 \times 10^8 M_⊙$ and inferred $M_\mathrm{gas} \sim 10^{11} M_⊙$ from a canonical gas:dust ratio (Fan et al., 2018, Harrington et al., 24 Apr 2025).

Bolometric AGN luminosities reach $L_\mathrm{bol} \gtrsim 10^{14} L_⊙$ , confirmed by infrared SED fitting and radiative transfer models (e.g., CLUMPY, SED3FIT, Bayesian decompositions) (Fan et al., 2016, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025).

3. Host Galaxy Morphology, Merger Fraction, and Molecular Gas

Advanced morphological analyses using HST/WFC3 have revealed that Hot DOG hosts exhibit intermediate Sérsic indices ( $n \sim 2.1$ ), distinct from classical disk ( $n\sim1$ ) or bulge ( $n\sim4$ ) systems, indicating a transitional state. Visual and non-parametric (Gini–M20) classifications demonstrate high merger fractions: $f_\text{merger}=62\pm14\%$ (visual), $f_\text{merger}\sim72\%$ (Gini–M20), far in excess of the ∼20% typical for unobscured, UV/optical-selected quasars. This morphology and its consistency with the variability-based merger trigger model supports the scenario in which the Hot DOG phase is merger-driven and coincides with morphological transformation (Fan et al., 2016).

Molecular gas studies, notably of W2246-0526, have exploited extensive multi-J CO ladders, revealing highly excited CO SLEDs peaking at J~10–12, higher than any previously reported extragalactic system. State-of-the-art turbulent radiative transfer modeling (TUNER) yields high molecular gas densities (log $n_\mathrm{H_2} \sim 2.4$ ), kinetic temperatures $T_k \sim 360$ K, and large kinetic-to-dust temperature ratios $T_k/T_d \sim 3.9$ , signaling mechanical feedback from outflows and shocks within compact (r~900 pc) nuclear ISM regions (Harrington et al., 24 Apr 2025). Mid-J CO ( $J=3–7$ ) is established as a robust tracer of total molecular gas in these conditions.

4. SMBH Growth, Black Hole Masses, and Eddington Ratios

Spectroscopy in the NIR and rest-UV (Hα, Mg II, C IV) has yielded virial SMBH mass estimates for Hot DOGs generally in the range $M_\mathrm{BH} \sim 10^{8.7}–10^{10} M_⊙$ (Li et al., 30 May 2024, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025, Wu et al., 2017, Ricci et al., 2016). Single-epoch estimators, calibrated for broad-line AGN, are employed:

$\log \left( \frac{M_\mathrm{BH}}{M_⊙} \right) = a + b \log \left( \frac{\lambda L_\lambda}{10^{44}\,\mathrm{erg\,s^{-1}}} \right) + 2 \log \left( \frac{\mathrm{FWHM}}{1000\,\mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}} \right)$

with coefficients dependent on the emission line (e.g., for Mg II: $a=0.740$ , $b=0.62$ ).

Eddington ratios ( $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd} = L_\mathrm{bol}/L_\mathrm{Edd}$ ) are typically high, with median values $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd} \sim 1$ and maxima reaching $\sim 3$ , signifying that SMBHs are accreting near or above the Eddington limit. For $L_\mathrm{bol} \sim 10^{47}\,\mathrm{erg\,s}^{-1}$ , $M_\mathrm{BH} \sim 10^{9} M_⊙$ , $L_\mathrm{Edd} \sim 1.26 \times 10^{38} (M_\mathrm{BH}/M_⊙)\,\mathrm{erg\,s}^{-1}$ (Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025, Li et al., 30 May 2024). These rates mirror those observed in $z\sim6$ quasars and are unprecedented for AGN with such high host stellar masses ( $M_⋆ \sim 10^{11-12} M_⊙$ ).

Comparisons in the $M_\mathrm{BH}$ – $M_⋆$ and $M_\mathrm{BH}$ – $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd}$ planes show that Hot DOGs as a population are either above or in the upper envelope of the local $M_\mathrm{BH}$ – $M_⋆$ relation, similar to $z\sim6$ quasars, reinforcing their identification as transition objects (Li et al., 30 May 2024, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025). Recent work at low $z$ finds Hot DOGs somewhat closer to the local relation (Li et al., 2023, Li et al., 9 Feb 2025).

5. X-ray Properties: Obscuration and AGN Feedback

X-ray observations with Chandra, XMM-Newton, and NuSTAR reveal extreme line-of-sight absorption columns, often exceeding the Compton-thick threshold ( $N_H > 10^{24} \mathrm{cm}^{-2}$ ). Stacked analyses of undetected Hot DOGs further require $N_H \gtrsim 10^{23.5}–10^{24} \mathrm{cm}^{-2}$ , confirming ubiquitous heavy obscuration (Vito et al., 2017, Villani et al., 7 Nov 2025). Many detected Hot DOGs exhibit reflection-dominated spectra, strong Fe Kα lines (EW ~ 1 keV), and intrinsic 2–10 keV luminosities $L_{2-10} \gtrsim 10^{45} \mathrm{erg\,s}^{-1}$ , placing them at the apex of luminous, obscured AGN at high- $z$ .

These sources are systematically X-ray weak compared to the mid-IR/X-ray relation observed in unobscured QSOs; the implied bolometric corrections $K_\mathrm{bol} \sim 10^3$ (i.e., $L_\mathrm{bol}/L_{2-10\,\mathrm{keV}}$ ), significantly above expectations for luminous AGN, possibly reflecting suppressed or geometrically distinct X-ray coronæ during this blowout phase (Vito et al., 2017, Ricci et al., 2016). The occurrence of compact, kpc-scale radio jets or cores, confirmed by VLBI, suggests that AGN-driven feedback begins acting while the AGN is deeply buried (Frey et al., 2015).

X-ray properties corroborate theoretical models in which radiation pressure on dust and AGN-driven winds evacuate the nuclear gas, ultimately quenching SMBH growth and unveiling the unobscured quasar (Villani et al., 7 Nov 2025). The “forbidden” region in the $N_H$ – $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd}$ plane is well-populated by Hot DOGs, indicating radiatively driven feedback is actively acting (Villani et al., 7 Nov 2025).

6. Large-Scale Environment and Proto-Cluster Association

Multiwavelength mapping of the environments around Hot DOGs consistently reports strong overdensities of red galaxies (e.g., Distant Red Galaxies, DRGs), submillimeter-bright sources (SMGs), Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs), Lyα emitters (LAEs), and mid-IR-selected galaxies on scales R ≲ 1–3 arcmin ( $\lesssim 1-6$ comoving Mpc) (Luo et al., 2022, Luo et al., 24 Jul 2024, Fan et al., 2017, Jones et al., 2014). Quantitatively, DRG overdensities are δ~2, SMG number counts exceed field levels by ~2–6×, and Lyα emitters show factors of ~2–4 overdensity compared to blank fields. These observations situate Hot DOGs at the core of assembling proto-clusters at cosmic noon ( $z\sim2–4.6$ ).

The direct imaging of, for example, W2246-0526 at $z=4.6$ shows 3–4× overdensity of LAEs within 6 cMpc, and W0410-0913 at z=3.6 is embedded in a unique clump of 19 LAEs within 300 kpc (Villani et al., 7 Nov 2025, Luo et al., 24 Jul 2024). Moreover, the compactness of circumgalactic Lyα nebulae (≲30 kpc vs. ~100 kpc for unobscured QSOs) in Hot DOGs is consistent with heavy obscuration suppressing the leakage of UV-ionizing photons to the CGM.

This clustering and environmental context supports a merger-driven gas infall and black-hole fueling picture. Observed merger features, companion galaxies within ~30 kpc (from ALMA [CII]), and highly turbulent ISM further reinforce the view of Hot DOGs as heavily interacting and gas-rich nodes within the early cosmic web.

7. Evolutionary Pathways and Theoretical Context

Hot DOGs are interpreted as a brief blow-out phase in the canonical hierarchical model for massive galaxy/SMBH co-evolution. The sequence involves:

Gas-rich merger triggers starburst and growth of a buried SMBH.
Hot DOG phase: extreme dust/gas obscuration, AGN bolometric output peaks, heavy feedback (outflows/shocks), SFR begins to quench.
Clearing/feedback: radiative/mechanical feedback drives out dust/gas; X-ray/MIR properties transition.
Quasar emergence: the system appears as a UV/optical Type 1 QSO.
Massive elliptical remnant: AGN/SF activity wanes, stellar bulge dominates.

Empirical data place Hot DOGs in this transition, with SFRs already a factor ∼2 below the main sequence for their $M_⋆$ at $z \sim 4.6$ , but large gas reservoirs ( $M_\mathrm{gas} \sim 10^{11} M_⊙$ ) available for final starburst or AGN accretion (Fan et al., 2018). The observed $\sim$ 25% incidence of "blue-excess" Hot DOGs (BHDs)—with rest-frame UV/optical scattered AGN light—reflects brief lifetimes (≲10⁶ yr) for this transitional phase within the broader Hot DOG duty cycle ( $10^7–10^8$ yr) (Li et al., 30 May 2024, Assef et al., 2019).

The association with overdense environments and high merger fraction directly supports scenarios in which major mergers, gas inflows, and feedback coordinate the locking-in of black hole/galaxy scaling relations (Fan et al., 2016, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025).

Key Observational Summary Table

Property	Typical Value/Range	Reference/Example
Redshift	$z \sim 1–4.6$	(Assef et al., 2014), W2246-0526 ( $z=4.6$ )
$L_\mathrm{IR}$	$10^{13}–10^{14.5}\,L_⊙$	(Fan et al., 2018, Harrington et al., 24 Apr 2025)
$T_\mathrm{dust}$	$60$–$120$ K (some $>$ 300 K)	(Jones et al., 2014, Li et al., 2023)
$M_\mathrm{dust}$	$\sim 10^{8}–10^{9}\,M_⊙$	(Fan et al., 2018)
$M_\mathrm{gas}$	$\sim 10^{11}\,M_⊙$	(Fan et al., 2018, Harrington et al., 24 Apr 2025)
$M_⋆$	$10^{11}–10^{12}\,M_⊙$	(Fan et al., 2018, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025)
$M_\mathrm{BH}$	$10^{8.7}–10^{10}\,M_⊙$	(Li et al., 30 May 2024, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025)
$\lambda_\mathrm{Edd}$	$0.5–3$, median $\sim1$	(Li et al., 30 May 2024, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025)
Obscuring column $N_H$	$10^{23.5}–10^{25}\,\mathrm{cm}^{-2}$	(Vito et al., 2017, Villani et al., 7 Nov 2025)
SFR	$400–2600\,M_⊙\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$	(Fan et al., 2018, Luo et al., 1 Jun 2025)
Merger fraction	$62\pm14\%$ (visual), $72\%$ (non-parametric)	(Fan et al., 2016)
Environment	Overdensity by factor $\sim2–4$	(Luo et al., 2022, Luo et al., 24 Jul 2024)

In sum, Hot DOGs constitute a critical, short-lived phase in the assembly and feedback-regulated evolution of the most massive galaxies and supermassive black holes. Their extreme luminosities, compact morphologies, heavy obscuration, high SMBH accretion rates, and frequent presence in dense, merger-rich proto-cluster environments render them a prime laboratory for testing theories of rapid black hole growth, star formation quenching, and the feedback-regulated establishment of scaling relations in the early universe.