High-Entropy Perovskites: Entropy-Driven Materials

Updated 20 October 2025

High-entropy perovskites are complex oxides with multiple cations randomly occupying lattice sites, using high configurational entropy for phase stabilization.
They are synthesized using advanced methods like pulsed laser deposition and laser-driven synthesis, which overcome traditional doping limitations.
Tailored electronic, magnetic, and dielectric properties enable practical applications in energy conversion, catalysis, and precision engineering.

High-entropy perovskites are a class of complex oxides characterized by multiple cationic species randomly occupying the A and/or B sites of the ABX₃ perovskite lattice, thereby maximizing configurational entropy. This compositional complexity stabilizes single-phase structures that are otherwise difficult or impossible to achieve via conventional doping or substitution strategies. As a consequence, high-entropy perovskites can exhibit unique macroscopic functionalities including tailored electronic, magnetic, dielectric, optical, thermochemical, and structural properties. The field has rapidly expanded on both the experimental and theoretical fronts, encompassing oxides, halides, hybrid organic–inorganic systems, and anti-perovskite derivatives, with applications ranging from energy conversion and information electronics to catalysis and precision-engineering components.

1. Configurational Entropy and Structural Stabilization

The defining feature of high-entropy perovskites is the deliberate incorporation of five or more elements (at minimum) into one or more crystallographic sites, leveraging configurational entropy ( $\Delta S_{config}$ ) to drive phase stabilization. For a perovskite of formula ABX₃, the entropy arises from random mixing on the A and/or B sublattices. The configurational entropy for an $n$ -component site is given by $S_{config} = -R \sum_{i=1}^n x_i \ln x_i$ , where $x_i$ is the mole fraction of the ith species and $R$ is the gas constant.

High configurational entropy compensates for the endothermic mixing enthalpy ( $\Delta H_{mix}$ ), shifting the free energy, $\Delta G_{mix} = \Delta H_{mix} - T\Delta S_{config}$ , toward phase stability at moderate or high temperatures (Sharma et al., 2018, Witte et al., 2019, Patel et al., 2019). This effect allows high-entropy perovskites to crystallize as single-phase oxides, halides, and hybrids, even when composed of cations with significant size, charge, or valence mismatch—a regime considered unreachable by traditional solid-solution approaches.

Structural stabilization is further governed by geometric and electronic criteria: the Goldschmidt tolerance factor ( $t = (r_A + r_O)/(\sqrt{2}(r_B + r_O))$ ), the octahedral factor ( $u = r_B/r_O$ ), and the variance of ionic radii and valence. High-entropy compositions usually target $t$ in the range 0.9–1.03, $u$ between 0.4–0.8, and configurational entropy $S_{config} > 1.5R$ for robust cubic or orthorhombic phase formation (Wei et al., 11 Apr 2025, Hai et al., 17 Oct 2025).

2. Synthetic Methodologies and Characterization

Synthesis of high-entropy perovskites has advanced from conventional ceramic routes to nonequilibrium techniques such as pulsed laser deposition (PLD), sol-gel methods, and emergent laser-driven solid-state synthesis (LSS). PLD with controlled substrate/atmosphere enables epitaxial films with atomically sharp interfaces and cube-on-cube epitaxy, as demonstrated for Ba(Zr₀.₂Sn₀.₂Ti₀.₂Hf₀.₂Nb₀.₂)O₃ on SrTiO₃ and MgO (Sharma et al., 2018). Layer-by-layer PLD growth monitored by in situ RHEED yields ultra-thin films with precise control over thickness and crystallinity, including complex compositions such as (La₀.₂Pr₀.₂Nd₀.₂Sm₀.₂Eu₀.₂)NiO₃ (Patel et al., 2019).

Laser-driven synthesis (LSS) achieves ultrafast heating and cooling, overcoming elemental immiscibility and crystallization barriers to produce single-phase crystals with up to 20 cationic elements, including rare-earth disilicates and perovskites. Cavitation bubbles formed in the plasma plume facilitate high-pressure synthesis, keeping volatile species within the lattice during rapid solidification (Wei et al., 11 Apr 2025).

Structural characterization leverages high-resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD), reciprocal space mapping, scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), atomic-force microscopy (AFM), EELS mapping, and electron microscopy to confirm phase purity, compositional uniformity, and absence of clustering or phase separation. Spectroscopic methods (UV–Vis, XPS, UPS, XAS) coupled with electrical and thermal measurements address functional properties including band structure, carrier dynamics, and phonon transport (Liang et al., 2021, Almishal et al., 15 Jan 2025).

3. Physical Properties: Electronic, Magnetic, and Dielectric Response

Electronic properties in high-entropy perovskites are governed by both average compositional parameters and local disorder effects. Charge transport is tunable by annealing, synthesis conditions, and cation selection—n-type conductivity and band gap narrowing result from donor-rich species (e.g., Nb⁵⁺ in Ba(Zr₀.₂Sn₀.₂Ti₀.₂Hf₀.₂Nb₀.₂)O₃), while dual transport mechanisms (thermally activated conduction at high T, metallic-like percolation at low T) are observed (Liang et al., 2021). The statistical distribution of cation sizes and charge states can broaden the band gap, flatten resistivity curves, and reduce mobility via enhanced electron correlation and scattering (Almishal et al., 15 Jan 2025).

Magnetic behavior in rare-earth transition metal high-entropy perovskites is complex: antiferromagnetic ordering dominates, supplemented by local ferromagnetic clusters and large vertical exchange bias, reflecting spin frustration and competing superexchange interactions among random B-site cations (Witte et al., 2019). The tolerance factor is a key predictor of magnetic transition temperature and structural distortion.

Dielectric and ferroelectric properties are strongly influenced by compositional disorder. High-entropy (Ba[Ti₀.₂Sn₀.₂Zr₀.₂Hf₀.₂Nb₀.₂]O₃) exhibits relaxor behavior with multiple phase transitions and high Curie temperature (570 K), as confirmed by dielectric, Raman, and SHG studies (Sharma et al., 2021). The formation of nanoscale polar domains and double hysteresis loops is governed by local compositional heterogeneity in the B-site lattice.

4. Statistical Thermodynamics, Lattice Distortions, and Defect Chemistry

Configurational disorder modulates ionic transport and defect equilibria, particularly oxygen vacancies. Mixing cations of different sizes on the A-site introduces lattice distortions that increase the variance ( $\sigma_A$ ) of oxygen vacancy formation energies ( $E_v$ ). Statistical thermodynamics models, treating vacancy energies as a spectrum $g(E_v)$ , yield formation enthalpy and entropy corrections: $\Delta H^f \approx \bar{E}_v - (\sigma_{E_v}^2)/(k_B T)$ and $\Delta S^f \approx \frac{1}{2}S_{O_2} - (\sigma_{E_v}^2)/(2 k_B T^2)$ (Potter et al., 15 Apr 2025). These corrections lower the effective activation barrier for vacancy formation and enhance ionic conductivity and vacancy concentration at moderate T—critical for water splitting electrodes and ionic transport materials.

Disorder effects similarly modulate negative thermal expansion (NTE) in anti-perovskites: high-entropy compositions show "sluggish" phase transitions with expanded NTE temperature ranges ( $\Delta T$ as wide as 235 K versus 60–122 K for low-entropy analogues). Neutron diffraction and STEM confirm extended magnetic phase separation and lattice distortions as key contributors (Yuan et al., 2023).

5. Design Strategies, Modeling, and Functional Applications

Rational design of high-entropy perovskites employs valence and geometric compatibility principles: electrical equilibrium is enforced via valence partitioning and Goldschmidt’s tolerance factor is tuned for phase stability. The two-step strategy—partitioning possible compositions into electrical subspaces, then selecting candidates with appropriate radii and charge—systematizes exploration of the multidimensional configuration space (Tang et al., 2020). Pairwise mixing enthalpy descriptors ( $\mu_{local}$ , $\sigma_{local}$ ) facilitate density functional theory (DFT)-guided predictions of stable single-phase high-entropy systems (Sharma et al., 2021).

Cluster expansion methods and Monte Carlo/DFT simulations efficiently sample vast configuration spaces, predicting electronic structure, defect distributions, and redox mechanisms—e.g., in compositionally complex perovskites for solar thermochemical hydrogen production, Co ions are shown to mediate oxygen vacancy formation through local bond weakening, optimizing hydrogen yield and redox kinetics (Zhang et al., 2022).

Functional applications span several domains:

Electronics and optoelectronics: Tunable band gaps, high carrier mobility, and transparency (for Sr[Ti,Cr,Nb,Mo,W]O₃) enable advanced optical and quantum device platforms (Almishal et al., 15 Jan 2025).
Energy conversion: Cocatalyst-free photocatalytic water splitting is realized in cubic Ba–Sr–Ti/Zr/Hf/Sn/Ga–In–Sn perovskites with tailored band alignment and charge separation, as validated by UPS and hydrogen evolution tests (Hai et al., 17 Oct 2025).
Ferroelectric/piezoelectric/pyroelectric devices exploit relaxor behavior and high Curie temperatures (Sharma et al., 2021).
Catalysis and thermochemical cycles: Compositionally complex perovskite oxides deliver robust STCH performance, balancing redox thermodynamics and kinetics over repeated cycling (Zhang et al., 2022).
Precision engineering and EMI shielding: Low thermal expansion, superior microwave absorption, and mechanical hardness are enhanced through configurational disorder (Yuan et al., 2023, Wei et al., 11 Apr 2025).

6. Emerging Directions and Design Implications

Recent research emphasizes that configurational entropy is not the sole factor—local lattice distortions, site size variance, and short-range chemical ordering must be considered when targeting electronic, magnetic, and structural responses. For example, size variance in rare earth ions modulates orbital ordering and spin–orbital entanglement in RVO₃ perovskites, allowing manipulation of Kugel–Khomskii orbital physics (Yan et al., 2023).

Laser-driven synthesis and high-throughput computational screening are expanding the chemical and structural landscape, incorporating up to 20 cationic species in rare-earth disilicates, perovskites, pyrochlores, and more (Wei et al., 11 Apr 2025). Statistical models now underpin defect engineering, correlating the distribution of local energies to macroscopic functionalities via enthalpy–entropy compensation and defect thermodynamics (Potter et al., 15 Apr 2025).

A plausible implication is that the design of next-generation high-entropy perovskites will integrate configurational entropy, local lattice descriptor optimization, and targeted electronic or magnetic functionalities, with widespread opportunity for application-driven compositional tailoring.

Table: Key Thermodynamic and Geometric Descriptors in High-Entropy Perovskite Design

Descriptor	Formula/Range	Function/Significance
Configurational Entropy ( $S_{config}$ )	$-R \sum_{i=1}^n x_i \ln x_i$	Phase stabilization of multi-cation lattices
Goldschmidt Tolerance Factor ( $t$ )	$(r_A + r_O)/(\sqrt{2}(r_B + r_O))$ , 0.9–1.03	Predicts cubic/orthorhombic phase stability
Octahedral Factor ( $u$ )	$r_B/r_O$ , 0.4–0.8	Ensures BO₆ octahedral integrity
Size Variance ( $\sigma_A$ or $\delta$ )	$\sum_i c_i \left(1 - r_i/\bar{r}\right)^2 \times 100\%$	Correlates to lattice distortion, defect chemistry
Valence Mismatch ( $\sigma(V_B)$ )	$\sqrt{\sum_i c_i (V_i - V_{avg})^2}$	Determines ordering versus random site occupation

High-entropy perovskites represent a paradigm for accessing untapped compositional, structural, and functional spaces in quantum materials, with design principles increasingly unified by advanced statistical thermodynamics, first-principles modeling, and process engineering. Their technological potential spans energy, electronics, catalysis, and precision engineering, driven by the unique interplay of entropy, disorder, and lattice dynamics in solid-state systems.