Cross-Architecture Knowledge Distilling

Updated 8 July 2025

Cross-Architecture Knowledge Distilling is a set of methods for transferring learned knowledge between models with inherently different structural features.
Techniques employ specialized projection and alignment modules to bridge representation and inductive bias gaps between architectures.
These methods enable efficient deployment and enhanced robustness, making advanced teacher models accessible on resource-constrained devices.

Cross-Architecture Knowledge Distilling refers to the set of techniques that enable effective transfer of knowledge from a teacher model to a student model when the two architectures are inherently different. These differences may arise from variations in computing paradigms (such as CNNs vs. Transformers vs. MLPs), inductive biases (local connectivity vs. global attention), representations (spatial feature maps vs. patch embeddings), or even tokenization and task structure. This class of methods extends classical knowledge distillation, which was originally formulated for homogeneous teacher–student pairs, to the broader challenge of heterogeneous, cross-architecture learning. The aim is often to retain as much predictive capacity or specialized behavior (such as robustness or efficiency) in a student model more suitable for real-world deployment, resource constraints, or adaptation to new modalities.

1. Methodological Foundations and Motivation

Cross-architecture knowledge distilling arises from the need to compress and transfer the capabilities of high-capacity or task-optimal teacher models (often Transformers or other advanced methods) into more resource-efficient (e.g., CNNs for embedded devices), robust, or otherwise architecture-divergent student models. Traditional distillation methods—such as those based on logit or feature matching—are limited by the assumption that teacher and student possess comparable representational structures, spatial layouts, or task-specific outputs. This assumption does not hold in modern learning pipelines where deployment, interoperability, and hardware realities necessitate the use of highly heterogeneous models.

Crucial challenges motivating this research area include:

Representation mismatch: Teacher and student may encode information in fundamentally different formats (e.g., global token attention in ViTs vs. local spatial encoding in CNNs (Liu et al., 2022, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025)).
Inductive bias divergence: Models may focus on distinct signal processing strategies, making direct feature mimicking suboptimal (Hao et al., 2023, Li et al., 16 Oct 2024).
Knowledge utilization across tasks: There is often interest in leveraging knowledge from a model trained on one modality or task (classification) to another (detection, segmentation) (Guo et al., 2021, Auty et al., 21 Mar 2024).
Model utility on hardware: Deployment on edge devices demands lightweight models with preserved performance despite architectural divergence (Zhao et al., 2023, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).

2. Core Techniques and Architectural Solutions

A variety of strategies have emerged for bridging the architectural divide:

Projection and Alignment Modules

Partially Cross-Attention (PCA) Projectors: These modules map CNN feature maps into spaces analogous to Transformer self-attention, by projecting features into "query," "key," and "value" matrices and computing scaled dot-product attention to mimic the teacher’s global dependencies (Liu et al., 2022, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).
Group-Wise Linear (GL) Projectors: To reconcile different spatial structures, GL projectors remap grouped CNN features to the teacher’s representation layout using shared linear transformations—enabling low-cost but effective alignments (Liu et al., 2022, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).
Region-Aware Attention (RAA): These attention mechanisms "patchify" student features and align region perspectives by running self-attention over their union, overcoming "view mismatch" (i.e., spatial misalignment) (Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025).
Latent Space/Logits Projection: Rather than matching raw features, several approaches "project" intermediate representations into an aligned logits (pre-softmax) space, discarding model-specific redundancy and allowing knowledge to be transferred in a canonical form (Hao et al., 2023, Huang et al., 10 Apr 2025).

Robust Training and Adversarial Adaptation

Multi-View Robust Training: Models are trained with various input augmentations, and adversarial discriminators may be used to induce invariance between teacher and student features. This strategy improves generalization under distribution shifts (Liu et al., 2022, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).
Adaptive Prompting: Introducing learnable prompts into teacher networks facilitates teacher conditioning for distillation, without directly modifying core parameters (Zhao et al., 2023, Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025).
Cross-Layer Knowledge Alignment: By learning which teacher layer best supervises each student layer, or through dynamic weighting and gating (e.g., Gumbel softmax), models can exploit deeper or more robust teacher representations, boosting efficacy (Nath et al., 2023, Binici et al., 22 Jul 2024).

Specialized Losses and Regularization

Spatial-agnostic/Contrastive Losses: Feature alignment may be achieved through contrastive objectives (such as InfoNCE) after spatial smoothing, mitigating the spatial misalignment that often occurs between CNN and Transformer features (Li et al., 16 Oct 2024, Wu et al., 28 May 2024).
Adaptive Target Enhancement: When predictive distributions differ (e.g., due to architecture), the KD loss can be adaptively modulated to emphasize reliable teacher guidance and mitigate harmful "dark knowledge" (Hao et al., 2023).

3. Application Domains and Empirical Outcomes

Cross-architecture distillation techniques have proven effective in domains including:

Vision tasks: Classification, object detection, semantic segmentation, and retinal disease diagnosis have seen both accuracy improvements and dramatic gains in parameter/computation reduction via cross-architecture approaches (Guo et al., 2021, Liu et al., 2022, Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025, Huang et al., 10 Apr 2025, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).
NLP and Retrieval: Efficient neural ranking, retrieval-based chat-bots, and LLMs with different tokenizer systems employ margin-based objectives and cross-tokenizer alignment methods for distillation (Tahami et al., 2020, Hofstätter et al., 2020, Chen et al., 16 Feb 2025).
Robustness: Distillation frameworks that optimally select teacher–student layer pairs and project intermediate attention can inherit adversarial robustness and compactness in student architectures discovered by NAS (Nath et al., 2023).
Dataset Distillation: Improving the generalization of synthetic datasets across architectural families—via model pools and bias-free feature supervision—addresses inductive bias challenges in dataset distillation (Zhao et al., 2023, Zhou et al., 20 Feb 2024).
Medical imaging: Accurate and efficient anomaly detection on resource-limited hardware via distilling vision transformers into CNNs, while preserving diagnostic reliability (Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).

Typical performance metrics involve increases of several percentage points in top-1/mean accuracy over non-distilled or naive KD baselines, with advanced methods showing state-of-the-art gains up to 16.94% (CIFAR-100, FOFA (Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025)) and robust retention (e.g., 93% of ViT performance in IoT deployment (Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025)).

4. Practical Considerations and Limitations

Numerous empirical and deployment challenges influence the selection and effectiveness of cross-architecture KD techniques:

Feature and representation matching: Direct feature alignment is often nonviable due to dimensionality and inductive bias differences; thus, robust projection strategies and loss formulations are critical (Liu et al., 2022, Hao et al., 2023).
Hyperparameter sensitivity: Many frameworks introduce additional balancing coefficients requiring careful tuning (e.g., temperature scaling, weighting of auxiliary losses) (Su et al., 2016, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025).
Instance-level correspondence: Certain approaches require synthetic data alignment (e.g., generating degraded counterparts or constructing paired examples), which is less generalizable when domain transformation is not easily modeled (Su et al., 2016).
Computational costs: Some methods involve auxiliary assistant or supernet models, or adversarial training, which may introduce additional overhead at training time but can often be dropped during inference (Li et al., 16 Oct 2024, Binici et al., 22 Jul 2024).
Residual performance gaps: While cross-architecture KD closes much of the gap relative to naive or homogeneous approaches, the achievable performance may not always match that of the original high-capacity teacher (Liu et al., 2022, Huang et al., 10 Apr 2025).
Evaluation complexity: For dataset distillation and cross-tokenizer KD, evaluating generalization across diverse models and tasks requires careful protocol design, including handling tokenizer-induced sequence mismatches and vocabulary alignment (Zhao et al., 2023, Chen et al., 16 Feb 2025).

5. Recent Advances and Representative Methods

A selection of methods exemplifying the breadth of strategies in cross-architecture knowledge distillation includes:

Approach/Module	Key Focus	Cited Papers
Partially Cross-Attention & Group-Wise Linear	Projecting CNN features to Transformer space	(Liu et al., 2022, Yilmaz et al., 23 Jun 2025)
Region-Aware Attention (RAA) + Adaptive Prompts	Aligning spatial views + teacher adaption	(Zhao et al., 2023, Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025)
OFA-KD (One-For-All Knowledge Distillation)	Logits-space projection + adaptive loss	(Hao et al., 2023, Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025)
Assistant Models + InfoNCE	Hybrid bridging of CNN/Transformer/MLP	(Li et al., 16 Oct 2024)
Margin-based/MSE objectives	Relative ranking for varied neural rankers	(Hofstätter et al., 2020)
Inverted Projections	Low-rank mapping for cross-task/architecture	(Auty et al., 21 Mar 2024)
Multi-Scale Dynamic Fusion	Stage-wise fusion of projected features	(Yang et al., 10 Feb 2025)
Cross-tokenizer Mapping (CDM)	Dynamic alignment for tokenizer heterogeneity	(Chen et al., 16 Feb 2025)
Activation Matching + Masked Prediction	Distilling attention into linear (Mamba) models	(Wei et al., 30 Mar 2025)
Model Pool & ELF in Dataset Distillation	Decoupling model bias in synthetic samples	(Zhao et al., 2023, Zhou et al., 20 Feb 2024)

Each technique addresses specific aspects of cross-architecture KD, including representation projection, spatial and semantic alignment, loss function adaptation, or dynamic knowledge evaluation.

6. Implications, Open Challenges, and Future Directions

The emergence of robust cross-architecture distillation techniques broadens the usability of model compression, transfer learning, and hardware-agnostic deployment. These methods enable practitioners to harness teacher models that may be unavailable or impractical for deployment while still achieving high performance, improved robustness, and efficient inference on downstream hardware.

Open challenges include:

Unifying frameworks: Development of universal KD frameworks applicable to any architecture pair, minimizing architecture-specific engineering (Lin et al., 15 Jan 2025).
Dynamic/student-aware teachers: Conditioning teacher outputs dynamically based on student capacity, as in generic teacher models or supernet approaches (Binici et al., 22 Jul 2024).
Task- and modality-extensibility: Extending methods and theoretical insights to enable cross-task, cross-modality, and continual learning transfers (Guo et al., 2021, Auty et al., 21 Mar 2024).
Minimizing alignment constraints: Further reducing dependence on synthetic correspondence or manually-crafted alignment strategies.
Efficient auxiliary modules: Innovation in lightweight adaptation modules (e.g., prompt learning, assistant models) that can be trained efficiently and discarded at inference (Zhao et al., 2023, Li et al., 16 Oct 2024).
Full open-source support: Ensuring code, pretrained models, and teacher-score files are readily accessible to foster broader adoption and secondary research (Hao et al., 2023, Wu et al., 28 May 2024).

A plausible implication is that as edge computing, model heterogeneity, and multi-modal AI pipelines proliferate, advances in cross-architecture knowledge distilling will be central to reconciling the competing demands of capacity, efficiency, generalization, and deployment flexibility. These advances reinforce the foundational role of well-designed projection, alignment, and evaluation mechanisms in the future of model transfer and compression paradigms.