Rethinking Memorization Measures and their Implications in Large Language Models (2507.14777v1)

Abstract: Concerned with privacy threats, memorization in LLMs is often seen as undesirable, specifically for learning. In this paper, we study whether memorization can be avoided when optimally learning a language, and whether the privacy threat posed by memorization is exaggerated or not. To this end, we re-examine existing privacy-focused measures of memorization, namely recollection-based and counterfactual memorization, along with a newly proposed contextual memorization. Relating memorization to local over-fitting during learning, contextual memorization aims to disentangle memorization from the contextual learning ability of LLMs. Informally, a string is contextually memorized if its recollection due to training exceeds the optimal contextual recollection, a learned threshold denoting the best contextual learning without training. Conceptually, contextual recollection avoids the fallacy of recollection-based memorization, where any form of high recollection is a sign of memorization. Theoretically, contextual memorization relates to counterfactual memorization, but imposes stronger conditions. Memorization measures differ in outcomes and information requirements. Experimenting on 18 LLMs from 6 families and multiple formal languages of different entropy, we show that (a) memorization measures disagree on memorization order of varying frequent strings, (b) optimal learning of a language cannot avoid partial memorization of training strings, and (c) improved learning decreases contextual and counterfactual memorization but increases recollection-based memorization. Finally, (d) we revisit existing reports of memorized strings by recollection that neither pose a privacy threat nor are contextually or counterfactually memorized.