Impacts and risks of "realistic" global warming projections for the 21st century

Abstract: The IPCC AR6 assessment of the impacts and risks associated with projected climate changes for the 21st century is both alarming and ambiguous. According to computer projections, the global surface may warm from 1.3 to 8.0 {\deg}C by 2100, depending on the global climate model (GCM) and the shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) scenario used for the simulations. However a substantial number of CMIP6 GCMs run "too hot" because they appear to be too sensitive to radiative forcing, and that the high/extreme emission scenarios SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 must be rejected because judged to be "unlikely" and "highly unlikely", respectively. This paper examines the impacts and risks of "realistic" climate change projections for the 21st century generated by assessing the theoretical models and integrating them with the existing empirical knowledge on global warming and the various natural cycles of climate change that have been recorded by a variety of scientists and historians. This is achieved by combining the "realistic" SSP2-4.5 scenario and empirically optimized climate modeling. The obtained climate projections show that the expected global surface warming for the 21st century will likely be mild, that is, no more than 2.5-3.0 {\deg}C and, on average, likely below the 2.0 {\deg}C threshold. This should allow for the mitigation and management of the most dangerous climate-change-related hazards through appropriate low-cost adaptation policies. In conclusion, enforcing expensive decarbonization and net-zero emission scenarios, such as SSP1-2.6, is not required because the Paris Agreement temperature target of keeping global warming below 2 {\deg}C throughout the 21st century should be compatible also with moderate and pragmatic shared socioeconomic pathways such as the SSP2-4.5.