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Evaluating a VR System for Collecting Safety-Critical Vehicle-Pedestrian Interactions (2310.05882v3)

Published 9 Oct 2023 in cs.HC

Abstract: Autonomous vehicles (AVs) require comprehensive and reliable pedestrian trajectory data to ensure safe operation. However, obtaining data of safety-critical scenarios such as jaywalking and near-collisions, or uncommon agents such as children, disabled pedestrians, and vulnerable road users poses logistical and ethical challenges. This paper evaluates a Virtual Reality (VR) system designed to collect pedestrian trajectory and body pose data in a controlled, low-risk environment. We substantiate the usefulness of such a system through semi-structured interviews with professionals in the AV field, and validate the effectiveness of the system through two empirical studies: a first-person user evaluation involving 62 participants, and a third-person evaluative survey involving 290 respondents. Our findings demonstrate that the VR-based data collection system elicits realistic responses for capturing pedestrian data in safety-critical or uncommon vehicle-pedestrian interaction scenarios.

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You’ll never walk alone: Modeling social behavior for multi-target tracking. In 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision (Kyoto). IEEE. Podkosova and Kaufmann (2018) Iana Podkosova and Hannes Kaufmann. 2018. Co-presence and proxemics in shared walkable virtual environments with mixed colocation. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (Tokyo, Japan) (VRST ’18, Article 21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. S Pellegrini, A Ess, K Schindler, and L van Gool. 2009. You’ll never walk alone: Modeling social behavior for multi-target tracking. In 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision (Kyoto). IEEE. Podkosova and Kaufmann (2018) Iana Podkosova and Hannes Kaufmann. 2018. Co-presence and proxemics in shared walkable virtual environments with mixed colocation. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (Tokyo, Japan) (VRST ’18, Article 21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Iana Podkosova and Hannes Kaufmann. 2018. Co-presence and proxemics in shared walkable virtual environments with mixed colocation. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (Tokyo, Japan) (VRST ’18, Article 21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. 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In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. 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Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Iana Podkosova and Hannes Kaufmann. 2018. Co-presence and proxemics in shared walkable virtual environments with mixed colocation. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (Tokyo, Japan) (VRST ’18, Article 21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. 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In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Iana Podkosova and Hannes Kaufmann. 2018. Co-presence and proxemics in shared walkable virtual environments with mixed colocation. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (Tokyo, Japan) (VRST ’18, Article 21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. Rasouli et al. (2019) Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. 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[No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Amir Rasouli, Iuliia Kotseruba, Toni Kunic, and John Tsotsos. 2019. PIE: A large-scale dataset and models for pedestrian intention estimation and trajectory prediction. In 2019 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) (Seoul, Korea (South)). IEEE. Robicquet et al. (2016) Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Alexandre Robicquet, Amir Sadeghian, Alexandre Alahi, and Silvio Savarese. 2016. Learning Social Etiquette: Human Trajectory Understanding In Crowded Scenes. In Computer Vision – ECCV 2016. Springer International Publishing, 549–565. Samaraweera et al. (2013) Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. 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In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. 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Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
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(2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. 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(2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
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In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gayani Samaraweera, Rongkai Guo, and John Quarles. 2013. Latency and avatars in Virtual Environments and the effects on gait for persons with mobility impairments. In 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI). 23–30. Schneider and Bengler (2020) Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
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(2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Sonja Schneider and Klaus Bengler. 2020. Virtually the same? Analysing pedestrian behaviour by means of virtual reality. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 68 (Jan. 2020), 231–256. Shahid et al. (2012) Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. 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(2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
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IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro. 2012. Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales, Azmeh Shahid, Kate Wilkinson, Shai Marcu, and Colin M Shapiro (Eds.). Springer New York, New York, NY, 369–370. Silvera et al. (2022) Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Gustavo Silvera, Abhijat Biswas, and Henny Admoni. 2022. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. 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Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. 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Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. 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Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. 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Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. 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UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
  61. DReyeVR: Democratizing Virtual Reality Driving Simulation for Behavioural & Interaction Research. (Jan. 2022). arXiv:2201.01931 [cs.HC] Slater and Wilbur (1997) Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
  62. Mel Slater and Sylvia Wilbur. 1997. A framework for immersive virtual environments five: Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6, 6 (Dec. 1997), 603–616. Stanney et al. (2003) Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Kay M Stanney, Mansooreh Mollaghasemi, Leah Reeves, Robert Breaux, and David A Graeber. 2003. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
  63. Usability engineering of virtual environments (VEs): identifying multiple criteria that drive effective VE system design. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 4 (April 2003), 447–481. Tan et al. (2022) Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Chek Tien Tan, Leon Cewei Foo, Adriel Yeo, Jeannie Su Ann Lee, Edmund Wan, Xiao-Feng Kenan Kok, and Megani Rajendran. 2022. Understanding User Experiences Across VR Walking-in-place Locomotion Methods. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New Orleans, LA, USA) (CHI ’22, Article 517). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. Tina Øvad ([n. d.]) C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. C X O Tina Øvad. [n. d.]. [No title]. https://preely.com/likert-scale-semantic-differential-scale/. Accessed: 2023-8-29. Tran et al. (2021) Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. 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(2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. 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(Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7.
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(2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Tram Thi Minh Tran, Callum Parker, and Martin Tomitsch. 2021. A Review of Virtual Reality Studies on Autonomous Vehicle–Pedestrian Interaction. IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems 51, 6 (Dec. 2021), 641–652. Usoh et al. (2000) Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. 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In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Martin Usoh, Ernest Catena, Sima Arman, and Mel Slater. 2000. Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence 9, 5 (Oct. 2000), 497–503. Weber et al. (2019) Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt, Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest. 2019. Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. In HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems. Springer International Publishing, 515–530. Wilson et al. (2023) Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. Social presence and place illusion are affected by photorealism in embodied VR. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion, Interaction and Games (Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom) (MIG ’19, Article 13). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–7. Benjamin Wilson, William Qi, Tanmay Agarwal, John Lambert, Jagjeet Singh, Siddhesh Khandelwal, Bowen Pan, Ratnesh Kumar, Andrew Hartnett, Jhony Kaesemodel Pontes, Deva Ramanan, Peter Carr, and James Hays. 2023. Argoverse 2: Next Generation Datasets for Self-Driving Perception and Forecasting. (Jan. 2023). arXiv:2301.00493 [cs.CV] Witmer and Singer (1998) Bob G Witmer and Michael J Singer. 1998. Measuring presence in Virtual Environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence 7, 3 (June 1998), 225–240. Yang et al. (2023) Ze Yang, Yun Chen, Jingkang Wang, Sivabalan Manivasagam, Wei-Chiu Ma, Anqi Joyce Yang, and Raquel Urtasun. 2023. UniSim: A neural closed-loop sensor simulator. (Aug. 2023). arXiv:2308.01898 [cs.CV] Zibrek and McDonnell (2019) Katja Zibrek and Rachel McDonnell. 2019. 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