Planning as Theorem Proving with Heuristics (2303.13638v3)
Abstract: Planning as theorem proving in situation calculus was abandoned 50 years ago as an impossible project. But we have developed a Theorem Proving Lifted Heuristic (TPLH) planner that searches for a plan in a tree of situations using the A* search algorithm. It is controlled by a delete relaxation-based domain independent heuristic. We compare TPLH with Fast Downward (FD) and Best First Width Search (BFWS) planners over several standard benchmarks. Since our implementation of the heuristic function is not optimized, TPLH is slower than FD and BFWS. But it computes shorter plans, and it explores fewer states. We discuss previous research on planning within KR&R and identify related directions. Thus, we show that deductive lifted heuristic planning in situation calculus is actually doable.
- 2000. Using temporal logics to express search control knowledge for planning. Artif. Intell. 116(1-2):123–191.
- 2007. Exploiting procedural domain control knowledge in state-of-the-art planners. In 17th International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling (ICAPS-07), 26–33.
- 2019. A logical semantics for PDDL+. In 29th International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling, ICAPS 2018, 40–48. AAAI Press.
- Batusov, V. 2014. Deterministic Planning in Incompletely Known Domains with Local Effects, Master Thesis. Technical report, Ryerson University, Dep. of Computer Science.
- Bibel, W. 1986. A deductive solution for plan generation. New Gener. Comput. 4(2):115–132.
- Bibel, W. 1998. Let’s plan it deductively! Artif. Intell. 103(1-2):183–208.
- Biundo, S. 1994. Present–Day Deductive Planning. In Proceedings of the 2nd European Workshop on AI Planning (EWSP-93), Current Trends in Artificial Intelligence Planning, 1–5. IOS Press.
- Bratko, I. 2001. Prolog: Programming For Artificial Intelligence, 3/E. Addison Wesley.
- 2007. Planning Graph Based Reachability Heuristics. AI Mag. 28(1):47–83.
- 2007. Towards an Integration of Golog and Planning. In Veloso, M. M., ed., IJCAI 2007, 20th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1846–1851.
- 2012. PLATAS - Integrating Planning and the Action Language Golog. Künstliche Intell. 26(1):61–67.
- Claßen, J. 2013. Planning and Verification in the agent language Golog. Ph.D. Dissertation, RWTH Aachen Univ.
- Cohen, J. 2001. A Tribute to Alain Colmerauer. Theory and Practice of Logic Programming 1(6):637–646.
- 2010. Forward-chaining partial-order planning. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling, ICAPS 2010, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 12-16, 2010, 42–49. AAAI.
- 1996. The Birth of Prolog. New York, NY, USA: ACM. 331–367.
- Colmerauer, A. 1990. An Introduction to Prolog III. Commun. ACM 33(7):69–90.
- 2003. A complete axiomatization for blocks world. J. Log. Comput. 13(4):581–594.
- 2022. Best-first width search for lifted classical planning. In 32nd International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling, ICAPS, 11–15.
- 2021. Delete-relaxation heuristics for lifted classical planning. In Proceedings of the 31st ICAPS, Guangzhou, China (virtual), 2021, 94–102. AAAI Press.
- 2022. The FF heuristic for lifted classical planning. In Thirty-Sixth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Event, February 22 - March 1, 2022, 9716–9723.
- 1999. Deductive synthesis of recursive plans in linear logic. In Biundo, S., and Fox, M., eds., Recent Advances in AI Planning, 5th European Conference on Planning (ECP-99), volume 1809 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 252–264. Springer.
- 2019. plasp 3: Towards effective ASP planning. Theory Pract. Log. Program. 19(3):477–504.
- Enderton, H. B. 2001. A Mathematical Introduction to Logic. Second edition: Harcourt Press.
- 2012. A first-order interpreter for knowledge-based golog with sensing based on exact progression and limited reasoning. In Proc. of the 26th Conference on Artificial Intelligence AAAI-12, 734–42.
- 1971. STRIPS: A new approach to the application of theorem proving to problem solving. Artificial Intelligence 2(3-4):189–208.
- 2000. Open world planning in the situation calculus. In Proceedings of the 7th AAAI-2000, 754–760. Menlo Park, CA: AAAI Press.
- Fronhöfer, B. 1996. Situational Calculus, Linear Connection Proofs and STRIPS-like Planning: An Experimental Comparison. In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop, Theorem Proving with Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods (TABLEAUX-96), volume 1071 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 193–209. Springer.
- Fronhöfer, B. 1997. Plan generation with the linear connection method. Informatica (Lithuanian Academy of Sciences) 8:3–22.
- 2013. Domain-specific heuristics in answer set programming. In 27th Conference on Artificial Intelligence AAAI-2013.
- 2013. A Concise Introduction to Models and Methods for Automated Planning. Synthesis Lectures on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
- 2004. Automated Planning: Theory and Practice. Morgan Kaufmann.
- Green, C. C. 1969a. Application of theorem proving to problem solving. In Proceedings of the 1st International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Washington, DC, USA, May 7-9, 1969, 219–240. William Kaufmann.
- Green, C. C. 1969b. ”The Application of Theorem Proving to Question-Answering Systems”. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford Univ., available at https://www.kestrel.edu/home/people/green/publications/green-thesis.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Green.
- 1996. Linear deductive planning. J. Log. Comput. 6(2):233–262.
- 2019. An Introduction to the Planning Domain Definition Language. Synthesis Lectures on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
- Hayes, P. J. 1973. Computation and deduction. In Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science: Proceedings of Symposium and Summer School, Strbské Pleso, High Tatras, Czechoslovakia, September 3-8, 1973, 105–117.
- Helmert et. al. 2022. Fast Downward at Github. https://github.com/aibasel/downward. Accessed: 2022-11-17.
- Helmert, M. 2006. The Fast Downward Planning System. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 26:191–246.
- 2006. Conformant planning via heuristic forward search: A new approach. ”Artificial Intelligence” 170(6–7):507–541.
- 2001. The FF Planning System: Fast Plan Generation Through Heuristic Search. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 14:253–302.
- 1990. A new deductive approach to planning. New Gener. Comput. 8(3):225–244.
- 2022. Homomorphisms of lifted planning tasks: The case for delete-free relaxation heuristics. In 36th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 9767–9775.
- 2022. 50 Years of Prolog and Beyond. Theory Pract. Log. Program. 22(6):776–858.
- Kowalski, R. A. 1988. The early years of logic programming. Commun. ACM 31(1):38–43.
- Kowalski, R. 2014. Logic programming. In Handbook of the History of Logic: Computational Logic, volume 9, 523–569.
- 2002. Evaluation-based reasoning with disjunctive information in first-order knowledge bases. In Proc of the 8th KR-2002, 73–81.
- 2021. Polynomial-time in PDDL input size: Making the delete relaxation feasible for lifted planning. In Proceedings of the 30th IJCAI 2021, Virtual Event / Montreal, Canada, 4119–4126. ijcai.org.
- 1998. Foundations for the situation calculus. Linköping Electronic Articles in Computer and Information Science. Available at: http://www.ep.liu.se/ea/cis/1998/018/ vol. 3, N 18.
- Levesque, H. J. 1996. What is planning in the presence of sensing? In Proceedings of the 13th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence AAAI 96, Volume 2, 1139–1146.
- Levesque, H. J. 1998. A Completeness Result for Reasoning with Incomplete First-Order KBs. In KR-1998, 14–23.
- Levesque, H. J. 2012. Thinking as Computation: A First Course. MIT Press.
- 2020. Automatic verification of liveness properties in the situation calculus. In The 34th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI 2020, 2886–2892.
- Lifschitz, V. 1999. Answer set planning. In Schreye, D. D., ed., Logic Programming: The 1999 International Conference, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA, November 29 - December 4, 1999, 23–37. MIT Press.
- 1997. How to Progress a Database. Artificial Intelligence 92:131–167.
- Lin, F. 1997. An ordering on subgoals for planning. Ann. Math. Artif. Intell. 21(2-4):321–342.
- Lin, F. 2001. Planner R: a variant of STRIPS, available at https://cse.hkust.edu.hk/faculty/flin/papers/r.ps. Technical report, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
- Lin, F. 2008. Situation calculus. In Handbook of Knowledge Representation, volume 3 of Foundations of Artificial Intelligence. Elsevier. 649–669.
- 2017. Best-first width search: Exploration and exploitation in classical planning. In 31st AAAI-2017, San Francisco, USA, 3590–3596.
- Lipovetzky and Geffner. 2022. Best First Width Search Planner, Github repository. https://github.com/nirlipo/BFWS-public. Accessed: 2022-11-17.
- 2009. On First-Order Definability and Computability of Progression for Local-Effect Actions and Beyond. In 21st IJCAI-2009, 860–866.
- 2005. Tractable reasoning with incomplete first-order knowledge in dynamic systems with context-dependent actions. In 19th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, IJCAI-2005, 522–527.
- Liu, Y. 2005. Tractable Reasoning in Incomplete First-Order Knowledge Bases. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto.
- Lloyd, J. 2012. Foundations of Logic Programming. Symbolic Computation. Springer, 2nd edition.
- 1987. How to clear a block: A theory of plans. J. Autom. Reason. 3(4):343–377.
- 2015. Modeling Organic Chemistry and Planning Organic Synthesis. In Global Conference on AI, GCAI-2015, Georgia, volume 36 of EPiC Series in Computing, 176–195. EasyChair.
- 1991. Systematic nonlinear planning. In 9th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-91), Volume 2, 634–639.
- 1969. Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence. In Meltzer, B., and Michie, D., eds., Machine Intelligence, volume 4. Edinburgh Univ. Press. 463–502.
- McCarthy, J. 1963. Situations, actions and causal laws. Technical Report Memo 2, Stanford University AI Laboratory, Stanford, CA. Reprinted in Marvin Minsky, editor, Semantic Information Processing, MIT Press, 1968.
- 2005. Discrete event calculus deduction using first-order automated theorem proving. In Konev, B., and Schulz, S., eds., Proc. of the 5th Intern. Workshop on the Implementation of Logics (ULCS-05-003), colocated with the 11th LPAR, Montevideo, Uruguay, 43–56. Dep. of Computer Science, Univ. of Liverpool, UK.
- 2001. Reviving partial order planning. In 17th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-2001), 459–464.
- Parmar, A. 2001. A Declarative Implementation of Planning with Control. In Provetti, A., and Son, T. C., eds., Answer Set Programming, Towards Efficient and Scalable Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Proc. of the 1st Intl. ASP’01 Workshop, Stanford, CA, USA, March 26-28, 2001.
- Parmar, A. 2002. A Logical Measure of Progress for Planning. In 18th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence AAAI-2002, 498–506.
- Pednault, E. P. D. 1994. ADL and the State-Transition Model of Action. J. of Logic and Comput. 4(5):467–512.
- 1992. UCPOP: A sound, complete, partial order planner for ADL. In 3rd Intern. Conf. on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR’92), 103–114. Morgan Kaufmann.
- Petrick, R. 2006. A Knowledge-Level Approach for Effective Acting, Sensing, and Planning. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto.
- 1999. Some contributions to the metatheory of the situation calculus. Journal of the ACM (JACM) 46(3):325–361.
- 1998. Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford Un. Press.
- Qovaizi, H. 2019. Efficient Lifted Planning with Regression-Based Heuristics, Master Thesis. Technical report, TMU, Toronto Metropolitan (formerly Ryerson) University, Department of Computer Science.
- Raphael, B. 1976. The Thinking Computer: Mind Inside Matter. W.H. Freeman and Company.
- Reiter, R. 1977. An Approach to Deductive Question-Answering. BBN Technical Report 3649 (Accession Number : ADA046550), Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.
- Reiter, R. 1978. On Closed World Data Bases. In Logic and Data Bases, 55–76. Plenum Press.
- Reiter, R. 1980. Equality and Domain Closure in First-Order Databases. J. ACM 27(2):235–249.
- Reiter, R. 1991. The Frame Problem in the Situation Calculus: A Simple Solution (sometimes) and a Completeness Result for Goal Regression. In Lifschitz, V., ed., AI and Mathematical Theory of Computation: Papers in Honor of John McCarthy, 359–380. San Diego: Academic Press.
- Reiter, R. 1993. Proving Properties of States in the Situation Calculus. Artif. Intell. 64(2):337–351.
- Reiter, R. 2001. Knowledge in Action. Logical Foundations for Specifying and Implementing Dynamical Systems. MIT, available at http://cognet.mit.edu/book/knowledge-action.
- 2010. The LAMA planner: Guiding cost-based anytime planning with landmarks. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 39:127–177.
- 2014. Heuristic evaluation based on lifted relaxed planning graphs. In Proc 24th ICAPS-2014, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA.
- 2008. On the Relative Expressiveness of ADL and Golog: The Last Piece in the Puzzle. In 11th Intern. Confer., KR-2008, 544–550.
- Röger, G. 2014. Planning Techniques and the Action Language Golog, Dissertation. Technical report, Technische Fakultät Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg, Germany.
- 2006. Reconciling situation calculus and fluent calculus. In 21st National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2006), 287–292.
- Shanahan, M. 2000. An Abductive Event Calculus Planner. J. Log. Program. 44(1-3):207–240.
- Sierra-Santibáñez, J. 2003. Declarative Formalization of Reasoning Strategies: A Case Study on Heuristic Nonlinear Planning. Ann. Math. Artif. Intell. 39(1-2):61–100.
- Sierra-Santibáñez, J. 2004. Heuristic planning: A declarative approach based on strategies for action selection. Artif. Intell. 153(1-2):307–337.
- 2022. Answer Set Planning: A Survey. Theory and Practice of Logic Programming.
- Soutchanski, M. 2017. Planning as Heuristic Controlled Reasoning in the Situation Calculus. PROLOG source code, TMU (formerly Ryerson), Dep. of Computer Science, https://www.cs.torontomu.ca/~mes/, Toronto, Canada.
- 1994. The Art of Prolog: Advanced Programming Techniques. MIT Press, 2nd edition.
- 2015. A Generic Approach to Planning in the Presence of Incomplete Information: Theory and implementation. Artif. Intell. 227:1–51.
- 1976. The Semantics of Predicate Logic as a Programming Language. J. ACM 23(4):733–742.
- Waldinger, R. 1977. Achieving Several Goals Simultaneously. In Machine Intelligence, volume 8, 94–136. Edinburgh, Scotland: Ellis Horwood.
- Weld, D. S. 1999. Recent advances in AI planning. AI Mag. 20(2):93–123.
- 2003. VHPOP: versatile heuristic partial order planner. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 20:405–430.
- 2015. Planning as tabled logic programming. Theory Pract. Log. Program. 15(4-5):543–558.