Ancestral reproductive bias in branching processes

Abstract: Consider a branching process with a homogeneous reproduction law. Sampling a single cell uniformly from the population at a time $T > 0$ and looking along the sampled cell's ancestral lineage, we find that the reproduction law is heterogeneous - the expected reproductive output of ancestral cells on the lineage from time $0$ to time $T$ continuously increases. This `inspection paradox' is due to sampling bias, that cells with a larger number of offspring are more likely to have one of their descendants sampled by virtue of their prolificity, and the bias's strength grows with the random population size and/or the sampling time $T$. Our main result explicitly characterises the evolution of reproduction rates and sizes along the sampled ancestral lineage as a mixture of Poisson processes, which simplifies in special cases. The ancestral bias helps to explain recently observed variation in mutation rates along lineages of the developing human embryo.