--- title: 'Wrapping Number: Invariants in Topology & Physics' url: https://www.emergentmind.com/topics/wrapping-number type: topic --- # Wrapping Number: Invariants in Topology & Physics Wrapping number is a context-dependent invariant or multiplicity that quantifies how an object winds around a distinguished cycle, core, or periodic direction. In low-dimensional topology it is a minimal geometric intersection number with a meridional disk in a solid torus or thickened annulus, and it governs satellite constructions, annular link diagrams, and annular Khovanov gradings [1712.05635][2501.02623]. In string theory it is the integer multiplicity with which a brane wraps an internal cycle, thereby determining lower-dimensional charges, BPS spectra, and T-duality multiplicities [1710.00642][1311.3578]. In statistical mechanics the related notion is the winding data of toroidal clusters underlying wrapping probabilities [1507.00453], while in robotic manipulation it becomes an operational wrap count indexed by repeated \( \theta\in[0,2\pi]\) single-wrap motions [2302.11428]. The term therefore has no single field-independent definition, but in all of these settings it measures topological or geometric recurrence around a nontrivial direction. ## 1. Wrapping number in satellite-knot theory For a knot or link \(P\) embedded in a solid torus \(ST\), the satellite construction starts from a companion knot \(C\subset S^3\) and embeds \(ST\) into a tubular neighborhood \(N(C)\) so that a longitude of \(ST\) maps to a longitude of \(C\); the image of \(P\) is the satellite knot \(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C)\). In this setting the wrapping number \(M(P)\) is the geometric intersection number with a meridional disk: if \(D\subset ST\) is a meridional disk, then \[ M(P)=\min_{\text{isotopies of }P\subset ST}|P\cap D|. \] Because any two meridional disks are isotopic, the minimum does not depend on the choice of \(D\). The paper also uses an annular-diagram formulation: the wrapping number of a diagram is the minimal number of intersections with a meridian arc under isotopies in the annulus, and the wrapping number of the knot is the minimum over diagrams. A constructive coloring method shows that for any annular diagram \(D\), the minimal meridian intersection number equals the number of encircling circuits \(ec(D^*)\), so \(w_{ST}(P)=ec(D^*)=M(P)\) [1712.05635]. This geometric quantity is distinct from the winding number. The winding number \(\mathrm{wind}(P)\) is the algebraic intersection number with a meridian. For any diagram \(D\), \[ -w_{ST}(D)\le \mathrm{wind}(D)\le w_{ST}(D), \] and therefore \(|\mathrm{wind}(P)|\le M(P)\). Equality occurs only when all meridional intersections have the same sign. The paper gives a simple illustration: a diagram \(U_2\) of the unknot in \(ST\) has two meridional intersections of opposite sign, so \(M=2\) while \(\mathrm{wind}=0\); after isotopy, the unknot itself has \(M=0\). A common misconception is therefore that wrapping number and winding number are interchangeable; in this framework they agree only in the absence of cancellation. A central technical link is the Jones polynomial in the solid torus. Writing \[ J_{ST}(P)=\sum_{k=0}^{M}\beta_k\, z_{ST}^k,\qquad \beta_k\in\mathbb{Z}[t^{-1/2},t^{1/2}],\ \beta_M\neq 0, \] the top index \(M\) satisfies \(0\le M\le M(P)\). Here \(z_{ST}^k\) records \(k\) encirclements of the core. The satellite Jones polynomial is then given by \[ J(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))=\sum_{k=0}^{M}\beta_k\,J(C;k), \] where \(J(C;k)\) is the Jones polynomial of the \(k\)-cable of \(C\) [1712.05635]. The main application is to crossing numbers. If \(C\) is adequate and \(J_{ST}(P)=\sum_{k=0}^{M}\beta_k z_{ST}^k\) with \(\beta_M\neq 0\), then \[ c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))\ge (M_{\beta_M}-m_{\beta_M})+\frac{M^2}{2}\,c(C)+2M-1. \] As an immediate corollary, for \(M>1\), \[ c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))>\frac{M^2}{2}\,c(C). \] If \(C\) is alternating, the bound improves to \[ c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))\ge (M_{\beta_M}-m_{\beta_M})+\frac{M(M+1)}{2}\,c(C)+M-1, \] hence for \(M>1\), \[ c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))>\frac{M(M+1)}{2}\,c(C). \] These estimates depend on adequacy because the proof uses state-graph control of Kauffman-bracket exponents and the breadth identity \(B(J(L))=B(\langle D\rangle)/4\) [1712.05635]. Several standard patterns fit directly into this framework. An \(r\)-cable pattern has wrapping number \(M=r\). The standard untwisted Whitehead-double pattern has wrapping number \(M=2\), giving \[ c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))\ge (M_{\beta_2}-m_{\beta_2})+2\,c(C)+3, \] and in particular \(c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))>2\,c(C)\) for adequate \(C\). The paper emphasizes both the strength and the limitation of these inequalities: they are the tightest lower bounds stated there for adequate companions, but they do not establish the conjectural form \(c(\operatorname{Sat}(P,C))\ge M(P)^2c(C)\), and for non-adequate companions the method does not produce analogous constants [1712.05635]. ## 2. Wrapping number \(2\) and Dehn surgery in a solid torus For a knot \(K\subset V\) in a solid torus \(V\), the wrapping number is \[ w(K)=\min_{D\text{ meridian disk of }V}|K\cap D|, \] while the winding number is the algebraic intersection \[ \operatorname{wind}(K)=\min_D |\langle K,D\rangle|. \] When \(w(K)=2\), one has \(\operatorname{wind}(K)\in\{0,\pm 2\}\). This low wrapping number forces a particularly rigid topology after cutting along a meridian disk: one obtains a \(2\)-string tangle \((B,\tau)\), with tangle space \(X=B-N(\tau)\), whose horizontal boundary \({}_hX\) is a twice-punctured torus when \(\operatorname{wind}(K)=2\) and a pair of once-punctured tori when \(\operatorname{wind}(K)=0\) [1105.4287]. The principal theorem states that if \(K\) is hyperbolic with \(w(K)=2\), \(K\) is not the Whitehead knot, and \({}_hX\) is incompressible in \(X\), then \(K\) admits at most one exceptional surgery \((V,K,r)\); that surgery must be toroidal, and \(r\) must be an integral slope. Under the same hypothesis, non-integral surgeries are hyperbolic, and small Seifert fibered surgeries do not occur [1105.4287]. This rigidity extends to families obtained by embedding \(V\) into \(S^3\). If \(\varphi_n\) is the standard embedding followed by \(n\) right-hand full twists along a meridian disk, and \[ K_n=\varphi_n(K),\qquad r_n=\varphi_n(r), \] then \[ r_n=r+n\,\operatorname{wind}(K)^2. \] Hence \(r_n=r\) if \(\operatorname{wind}(K)=0\), and \(r_n=r+4n\) if \(\operatorname{wind}(K)=\pm 2\). If \(w(K)=2\) and \((V,K,r)\) is nonhyperbolic, then \(K_n(r_n)\) is nonhyperbolic for all but at most three \(n\). More precisely, either almost all \(K_n(r_n)\) are toroidal, or all are atoroidal and each is reducible or small Seifert fibered with two common singular fiber indices [1105.4287]. This theory is applied to wrapped Montesinos knots. The classification stated in the paper isolates four exceptional families: the Whitehead knot \(K^0(2)\) with slopes \(r=0,1,2,3,4\); integral rational tangles \(K^a(n)\) with a unique toroidal boundary slope; pretzel-type wrapped Montesinos knots \(K^a(1/q_1,1/q_2)\) with the pretzel slope; and the specific knot \(K^1(-1/2,1/3)\), which has exceptional surgeries at \(r=6,7,8\), with \(r=7\) small Seifert fibered and \(r=6,8\) toroidal [1105.4287]. A useful interpretive point is that wrapping number \(2\) is restrictive not merely because it is numerically small, but because it forces a tangle decomposition whose boundary has very low complexity. This suggests why the annular-slope and intersection-graph arguments become decisive precisely in the \(w(K)=2\) case. ## 3. Annular links and the categorified wrapping number For an annular link \(L\subset A\times I\), where \(A=\mathbb{R}^2-\{0\}\), the wrapping number \(\mathrm{wrap}(L)\) is the minimal geometric intersection number between \(L\) and a meridional disk in \(A\times I\). Equivalently, if \(D\) is an annular diagram of \(L\), \(\mathrm{wrap}(D)\) is the minimal geometric intersection between \(D\) and a meridional arc in \(A\), and \(\mathrm{wrap}(L)\) is the minimum over annular diagrams. For a complete resolution \(D_u\), \(\mathrm{wrap}(D_u)\) equals the number of nontrivial circles in \(D_u\), where a circle is nontrivial if it winds around the marked point \(*\) [2501.02623]. This geometric quantity bounds the support of annular Khovanov homology. In the annular Khovanov complex, nontrivial circles contribute factors \(V=\mathbb{Z}v_+\oplus \mathbb{Z}v_-\) with \((\mathrm{gr}_q,\mathrm{gr}_k)(v_\pm)=(\pm1,\pm1)\), while trivial circles contribute \(W=\mathbb{Z}w_+\oplus \mathbb{Z}w_-\) with \((\mathrm{gr}_q,\mathrm{gr}_k)(w_\pm)=(\pm1,0)\). If \(D\) realizes \(\mathrm{wrap}(L)\), then \[ \operatorname{supp}_k AKh(L)\subset \{-\mathrm{wrap}(L),-\mathrm{wrap}(L)+2,\ldots,\mathrm{wrap}(L)-2,\mathrm{wrap}(L)\}. \] The Categorified Wrapping Number Conjecture, originally attributed there to Grigsby, states that \[ AKh(L;\mathrm{wrap}(L))\neq 0 \] for every annular link \(L\) [2501.02623]. The paper proves this conjecture for broad classes by introducing a resolution-level criterion. A resolution \(D_u\) is exactly wrapped if the number of nontrivial circles equals \(\mathrm{wrap}(L)\). It is insulated if its adjacent cobordisms are only of the “top-\(k\) permissible” types. A trivial circle is type \(0\) if it abuts only \(0\)-smoothings and type \(1\) if it abuts only \(1\)-smoothings. A resolution is uniform if every trivial circle is type \(0\) or type \(1\). The central theorem states that \(D_u\) is perfectly wrapped and uniform if and only if \(K(D_u)\setminus I(D_u)\neq\varnothing\), where \(K(D_u)\) is the null set of distinguished generators that are not sources of any differential arrow in \(k=\mathrm{wrap}(L)\), and \(I(D_u)\) is the target set of generators that are targets of such arrows. In that case, \[ AKh(L;\mathrm{wrap}(L))\neq 0, \] and \(K(D_u)\setminus I(D_u)\) is described explicitly by \[ x=v_+^{\otimes \mathrm{wrap}(L)}\otimes w_-^{\otimes n_0}\otimes w_\pm^{\otimes n_2}\otimes w_+^{\otimes n_1}, \] where \(n_0,n_1,n_2\) count the trivial circles of type \(0\) only, type \(1\) only, and both types, respectively [2501.02623]. Alternating annular links are a major consequence. For alternating diagrams, every trivial circle in every resolution is type \((0,1)\) or type \((1,0)\), an “almost uniform” condition. The paper shows that a perfectly wrapped almost uniform resolution can be converted into a perfectly wrapped uniform resolution when there are no removable nugatory crossings. It follows that the Categorified Wrapping Number Conjecture holds for every alternating annular link [2501.02623]. The same method also proves nonvanishing for annular closures of tangles with horizontal \(2\)-braids, for stacked tangles with “belts,” for blackboard cablings, and for diagrams obtained by adding “earrings.” One sharp limitation is also recorded: if \(AKh(L;\mathrm{wrap}(L))\) is torsion-only over \(\mathbb{Z}\), then no perfectly wrapped uniform resolution exists. The general question left open there is whether every annular link admits a diagram with such a resolution. ## 4. Universal wrapping rules for branes on tori In string theory, wrapping number means the integer with which a \(p\)-brane winds around a compact cycle. If \(\Sigma_k\subset T^n\) is a homology cycle, a wrapped brane is labeled by an integral class \[ [\Sigma_k]=\sum_I n_I e_I, \] with integer coefficients \(n_I\). At fixed moduli, the BPS mass is proportional to the tension times the geometric volume times the absolute value of the wrapping number, and the lower-dimensional central charges are obtained by integrating the relevant fluxes or potentials over the wrapped cycles [1710.00642][1311.3578]. A central organizing parameter is the dilaton-scaling exponent \(\alpha\), defined by \(T\sim g_s^\alpha\). In toroidal compactification, the lower-dimensional brane multiplicities follow universal wrapping rules. For ten-dimensional branes with a conventional ten-dimensional origin, the rules are \[ \begin{aligned} \alpha=0 &: \quad \text{wrapped}\rightarrow \text{doubled}, \qquad \text{unwrapped}\rightarrow \text{undoubled},\\ \alpha=-1 &: \quad \text{wrapped}\rightarrow \text{undoubled}, \qquad \text{unwrapped}\rightarrow \text{undoubled},\\ \alpha=-2 &: \quad \text{wrapped}\rightarrow \text{undoubled}, \qquad \text{unwrapped}\rightarrow \text{doubled},\\ \alpha=-3 &: \quad \text{wrapped}\rightarrow \text{doubled}, \qquad \text{unwrapped}\rightarrow \text{doubled}, \end{aligned} \] and for the particular space-filling representation containing the IIB \(9\)-brane, \[ \alpha=-4:\quad \text{wrapped}\rightarrow \text{doubled}. \] These rules are presented as universal across toroidal compactifications and are reproduced from the supergravity decomposition into \(SO(d,d)\times \mathbb{R}^+\) representations [1710.00642][1108.5067]. A more refined formulation uses mixed-symmetry potentials \(A_{p,q,r,\ldots}\). For an \(\alpha=-n\) brane, if an internal index \(x\) occurs \(p\) times across the columns, the T-duality rule is \[ T_x:\quad \underbrace{x,\ldots,x}_{p}\longleftrightarrow \underbrace{x,\ldots,x}_{n-p}. \] For \(\alpha=-2\), this specializes to \(0\rightarrow 1,1\) and \(1\rightarrow 1\), reproducing “unwrapped \(\rightarrow\) doubled, wrapped \(\rightarrow\) undoubled.” For \(\alpha=-3\), \(0\rightarrow 1,1,1\) and \(1\rightarrow 1,1\), so branes always double. Higher \(\alpha\le -4\) families are treated similarly [1710.00642]. The multiplicities of exotic branes include an additional combinatorial factor coming from the extra columns of mixed-symmetry potentials. If the ten-dimensional potential is \(A_{p,q,r,\ldots}\), compactification to \(D=10-d\) yields \[ M(d;q,r,\ldots)=\binom{d}{q}\binom{d-q}{r}\cdots . \] In the simplest cases this reduces to \(M(d;q)=\binom{d}{q}\). The paper gives explicit examples such as \(F_{9,3}\) with \(M=\binom{d}{3}\), \(F_{8,6}\) with \(M=\binom{d}{6}\), \(G_{10,4+n,2m+1,n}\) with \(M=\binom{d}{4}\), and \(H_{10,6+n,2+m,m,n}\) with \(M=\binom{d}{6}\) [1710.00642]. The older wrapping-rules analysis frames the same phenomenon from the ten-dimensional IIA/IIB perspective. It states that the \(\alpha=0,-1,-2,-3\) rules are required in order to reproduce the multiplicities of supersymmetric branes predicted by maximal supergravity, and it interprets the \(\alpha=0\) and \(\alpha=-2\) doublings in terms of pp-waves and Kaluza–Klein monopoles. For \(\alpha=-3\), the required doubling is realized by generalized Kaluza–Klein monopoles encoded by mixed-symmetry potentials \(E_{8+n,2m+1,n}\) in IIA and \(E_{8+n,2m,n}\) in IIB, with restricted reduction rules. The resulting counts are \[ N_{D-3}=2^{d-1},\qquad N_{D-2}=d\,2^{d-1},\qquad N_{D-1}=\binom{d}{2}2^{d-1}, \] in \(D=10-d\) dimensions [1108.5067]. One subtlety emphasized in the later paper is that multi-wrapping with \(w>1\) on the same cycle multiplies the charge but does not produce new species. The wrapping rules count distinct \(1/2\)-BPS species modulo T-duality equivalence and the long-weight selection rule, not arbitrary charge multiplicities [1710.00642]. ## 5. K3, orbifolds, and non-geometric extensions For Type IIA on K3, wrapping number is tied to the integral homology lattice \(H_2(K3,\mathbb{Z})\cong \Gamma_{3,19}\). If \(\Sigma=\sum_I n_I e_I\), the integers \(n_I\) are the wrapping numbers, and they are constrained by the intersection form. The relevant sublattice for single \(1/2\)-BPS wrapped D2 states is a light-like \(\Gamma_{3,3}\subset \Gamma_{3,19}\). This is why, although \(H_2(K3)\) has rank \(22\), the paper identifies six light-like two-cycles as the ones producing the single \(1/2\)-BPS D2 \(\to\) D0 states counted by the wrapping rules [1311.3578]. The canonical example is six-dimensional D0 counting in Type IIA on K3: one unwrapped D0, six D2-branes wrapping the six independent light-like two-cycles in \(\Gamma_{3,3}\), and one D4-brane wrapping the whole K3, giving a total of eight single \(1/2\)-BPS D0 states. The central charge of a pure D2 state is \[ Z\propto \sum_I n_I \int_{e_I}(B+iJ), \] while more general even-brane charges include D0 and D4 contributions as well. On the heterotic side, the dual \(1/2\)-BPS mass formula is \[ M^2=\frac{1}{\alpha'}p_R^2, \] with charges in the Narain lattice \(\Gamma_{4,20}\). The duality map is organized by \(SO(4,4)\) triality: \[ \text{Het}:8_V\leftrightarrow \text{IIA}:8_S\leftrightarrow \text{IIB}:8_C. \] This ties K3 wrapping numbers to heterotic momentum and winding data [1311.3578]. Orbifold limits \(T^4/\mathbb{Z}_N\) complicate the geometry. For \(N=2\), six bulk \(2\)-forms survive; for \(N=3,4,6\), only four do, and one must add fractional combinations with exceptional cycles to reconstruct the integral \(\Gamma_{3,19}\) lattice. The paper stresses that the naive direct sum of bulk and exceptional cycles is not an integral unimodular lattice. A further subtlety is the hidden half-integer \(B\)-field on collapsed \(2\)-spheres, which enforces Freed–Witten consistency and underlies fractional branes [1311.3578]. A parallel extension concerns Type II compactifications on orbifolds such as K3 in the \(T^4/\mathbb{Z}_2\) limit and \(T^6/(\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2)\). There the main result is that wrapping-rule counting agrees with half-BPS brane spectra only after including the full T-duality orbit, including non-geometric T-dual configurations. For \(T^6/(\mathbb{Z}_2\times \mathbb{Z}_2)\), starting from a geometric Type IIA model, the complete orbit consists of \(8\) geometric IIA, \(8\) geometric IIB, \(24\) non-geometric IIA, and \(24\) non-geometric IIB configurations, so the relative weight of geometric to non-geometric backgrounds is \(16:48=1:3\). Correct wrapping counts require averaging over this complete orbit [1407.5576]. The same papers also record modified rules in half-maximal settings such as \((T^4/\mathbb{Z}_2)\times T^n\). Only even cycles on \(T^4/\mathbb{Z}_2\) are allowed, some branes are projected out by supersymmetry or by worldvolume multiplet constraints, and certain naive counts are halved. This suggests that “wrapping number” in these models is not only a homological multiplicity but also a representation-theoretic datum filtered by orbifold parity, long-weight selection, and consistency conditions [1710.00642][1407.5576]. ## 6. Wrapping number and wrapping probability in random-cluster criticality In random-cluster representations of Potts models on a finite \(L^d\) torus with periodic boundary conditions, a cluster \(\mathcal{C}\) carries a wrapping-number vector \[ w(\mathcal{C})=(w_1,\ldots,w_d)\in \mathbb{Z}^d, \] where \(w_i\) is the net winding number around the \(i\)-th periodic direction. A cluster wraps in direction \(i\) when \(w_i\neq 0\). In two dimensions this supports several indicator events: \(R_1\) for wrapping in \(x\) but not \(y\), \(R_b\) for wrapping in both directions, \(R_e\) for wrapping in at least one direction, and \(R_x\) for wrapping in \(x\) irrespective of \(y\), with \[ R_e=2R_1+R_b,\qquad R_x=R_1+R_b. \] The corresponding wrapping probabilities are ensemble averages of these indicators [1507.00453]. The grand-canonical random-cluster partition functions are \[ Z_{RC}(p,q)=\sum_{\mathcal{G}\subset E} p^{b(\mathcal{G})}(1-p)^{|E|-b(\mathcal{G})}q^{C(\mathcal{G})}, \qquad Z_{RC}(v,q)=\sum_{\mathcal{G}\subset E} v^{b(\mathcal{G})}q^{C(\mathcal{G})}, \] while the canonical ensemble at fixed bond count \(m\) uses \[ Z_{RC}^{can}(m,q)=\sum_{\mathcal{G}\subset E,\ b(\mathcal{G})=m} q^{C(\mathcal{G})}. \] The paper shows that critical wrapping probabilities are universal but may depend on the ensemble. If \(y_t=1/\nu\) and \(d\) is the spatial dimension, then \[ R_{can}^*\neq R_{gc}^* \quad \text{if } 2y_t-d>0, \] whereas \[ R_{can}^*=R_{gc}^* \quad \text{if } 2y_t-d\le 0. \] For \(2y_t-d>0\), the canonical scaling field is shifted: \[ x(\rho,L)=tL^{y_t}\simeq \tau L^{y_\tau}-\delta,\qquad y_\tau=d-y_t, \] and therefore \[ R^{can}(\rho,L)\simeq R(\tau L^{y_\tau}-\delta). \] This shift is universal. For \(2y_t-d=0\), the leading canonical corrections are logarithmic, and for \(2y_t-d<0\) the canonical and grand-canonical critical values coincide but the constraint induces new finite-size corrections [1507.00453]. The paper gives explicit examples. In two-dimensional Ising FK clusters, \(2y_t-d=0\), so \(R_{can}^*=R_{gc}^*\) with \(1/\ln L\) corrections. In two-dimensional \(q=3\) Potts FK clusters, \(2y_t-d=0.4>0\), so the critical canonical values differ from the exact grand-canonical ones; the reported thermodynamic-limit canonical values are \[ R_x^*=0.6673(5),\quad R_1^*=0.1801(2),\quad R_b^*=0.4871(7),\quad R_e^*=0.8474(3), \] distinct from the grand-canonical values \[ R_x^*=0.695000176,\quad R_1^*=0.118666330,\quad R_b^*=0.576333845,\quad R_e^*=0.813666506. \] A plausible implication is that wrapping number here functions less as a single invariant of one object than as homological data from which universal finite-size observables are built [1507.00453]. ## 7. Operational wrapping number in robotic rope wrapping In robotic manipulation of deformable linear objects, the cited paper does not introduce an explicit topological winding-number variable. Instead, each single wrap is parameterized by an angular phase \(\theta\in[0,2\pi]\) around a rod, and the number of wraps is represented implicitly by the iteration index \(n\) in the feedback laws. Each completed spiral trajectory from \(\theta=0\) to \(\theta=2\pi\) increments the wrap count by one [2302.11428]. The canonical single-wrap trajectory in the rod frame is \[ \left\{ \begin{array}{l} x = R\cos\theta-(2\pi R+L'-\theta R)\sin\theta \\ y = R\sin\theta+(2\pi R+L'-\theta R)\cos\theta\\ z = a\theta/2\pi \end{array} \right. \] with \[ R=r_{rod}+\epsilon,\qquad L=2\pi R+L'. \] Here \(R\) is an effective wrapping radius, \(a\) is the axial advance, \(L'\) is a safe distance, and the intended center spacing between adjacent wraps equals the rope diameter \(d\). The gripper also rotates by \(\theta\) about the rod axis during the motion [2302.11428]. Wrapping state is estimated visually after each wrap. Radial tightness is measured by a height \(h\), and axial tightness by \[ q_a=\frac{S_g}{S_g+S_r}, \] where \(S_r\) is the area of the latest wrap and \(S_g\) is the gap area immediately to its left. The proportional feedback laws are \[ R_{n+1}=R_n-K_{PR}\cdot q_r,\qquad q_r=h-t_R, \] and \[ a_{n+1}=a_n-K_{Pa}\cdot q_a. \] The radial stop condition is \(h\le t_R\), with \(t_R=1.5d\) in the experiments. The axial stop conditions are \(q_a=0\) or \(|q_{an}-q_{a(n+1)}|